Revista Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad de Antioquia, No.111, pp. 9-20, Apr-Jun 2024
Assessment of the mechanical and
environmental behavior of diesel engines
operating with biodiesel mixtures
Evaluación del comportamiento mecánico y ambiental de motores diésel que funcionan con
mezclas de biodiésel
César Morales-Bayetero1, Edilberto Antonio Llanes-Cedeño2*, Carlos Mafla-Yépez1, Alberto
Rodríguez-Rodríguez3
1Facultad de Ingeniería en Ciencias Aplicadas, Universidad Técnica del Norte. Avenida 17 de julio 5-21 y Gral. José María
Córdova. C. P. 100105. Ibarra, Ecuador.
2Facultad de Ingeniería en Ciencias Aplicadas, Universidad Internacional SEK. Calle Alberto Einstein S/N y 5ta transversal.
C. P. 170134. Quito, Ecuador.
3Facultad de Ciencias Técnicas, Universidad Estatal del Sur de Manabí. Calle Bolívar, esquina Guayas. C. P. 130307.
Jipijapa, Ecuador.
CITE THIS ARTICLE AS:
C. Morales-Bayetero, E. A.
Llanes-Cedeño, C.
Mafla-Yépez and A.
Rodríguez-Rodríguez
”Assessment of the
mechanical and environmental
behavior of diesel engines
operating with biodiesel
mixtures”, Revista Facultad de
Ingeniería Universidad de
Antioquia, no. 111, pp. 9-20,
Apr-Jun 2024. [Online].
Available: https:
//www.doi.org/10.17533/
udea.redin.20230215
ARTICLE INFO:
Received: March 02, 2022
Accepted: February 27, 2023
Available online: February 28,
2023
KEYWORDS:
Biodiesel; opacity; diesel
engines; polluting gases
Biodiésel; opacidad; motores
diésel; gases contaminantes
ABSTRACT: Biodiesel is one of the best renewable fuels to reduce dependence on
petroleum derivatives. The objective of this work is to evaluate the mechanical and
environmental performance in compression ignition engines with the use of biodiesel
in proportions of 5 % (B5), 15 % (B15), and mixtures with additive B5A and B15A, through
the experimentation and use of automotive measuring equipment, for mass application
in automotive vehicles. The methodology applied is based on the development of two
stages; the first is the preparation of the mixtures to be used in the research with
the corresponding diesel/biodiesel percentage for each, and the second is the analysis
of mechanical and environmental behavior through the use of properly calibrated and
updated diagnostic equipment. The results show that the B5 mixture shows the
best values, managing to maintain power and torque with non-significant decreases
compared to diesel, with averages of 1.1 % and 0.3 %, respectively. As the percentage
of biodiesel increases, the opacity value decreases from 44.8 % with B15 and 59.3 %
with B15A. In relation to exhaust gases, additive mixtures show the most significant
reduction in CO2, CO, and HC emissions, while NOx emissions rise slightly as biodiesel
concentration increases, but statistically, it is not significant.
RESUMEN: El biodiésel es uno de los combustibles renovables con mejores alternativas
para disminuir la dependencia de los derivados del petróleo. El objetivo del trabajo es
evaluar el desempeño mecánico y ambiental en motores de encendido a compresión con
el uso de biodiésel en proporciones del 5% (B5), 15% (B15) y mezclas con aditivo B5A y
B15A, mediante la experimentación y uso de equipos de medición automotriz, para su
aplicación masiva en los vehículos automotrices. La metodología aplicada se basa en el
desarrollo de dos etapas; la primera consiste en la preparación de las mezclas a utilizar
en la investigación con el porcentaje de diésel/biodiésel correspondiente para cada una,
y la segunda el análisis del comportamiento mecánico y ambiental mediante el uso de
equipos de diagnóstico debidamente calibrados y actualizados. En los resultados se
obtiene que la mezcla B5 muestra los mejores valores, logrando mantener la potencia
y torque con disminuciones no significativas respecto al diésel con promedios de 1.1% y
0.3%, respectivamente. A medida que aumenta el porcentaje de biodiésel, se reduce el
valor de opacidad de 44.8% con B15 y 59.3% con B15A.
En relación a los gases de escape, las mezclas con aditivos muestran la mayor reducción en las emisiones de CO2,
CO y HC, mientras que las emisiones de NOx se elevan
ligeramente a medida que aumenta la concentración de
biodiésel, pero estadísticamente no es significativo.
9
* Corresponding author: Edilberto Antonio Llanes-Cedeño
E-mail: antonio.llanes@uisek.edu.ec
ISSN 0120-6230
e-ISSN 2422-2844
DOI: 10.17533/udea.redin.20230215 9
Assessment of the mechanical and
environmental behavior of diesel engines
operating with biodiesel mixtures
Evaluación del comportamiento mecánico y ambiental de motores diésel que funcionan con
mezclas de biodiésel
César Morales-Bayetero1, Edilberto Antonio Llanes-Cedeño2*, Carlos Mafla-Yépez1, Alberto
Rodríguez-Rodríguez3
1Facultad de Ingeniería en Ciencias Aplicadas, Universidad Técnica del Norte. Avenida 17 de julio 5-21 y Gral. José María
Córdova. C. P. 100105. Ibarra, Ecuador.
2Facultad de Ingeniería en Ciencias Aplicadas, Universidad Internacional SEK. Calle Alberto Einstein S/N y 5ta transversal.
C. P. 170134. Quito, Ecuador.
3Facultad de Ciencias Técnicas, Universidad Estatal del Sur de Manabí. Calle Bolívar, esquina Guayas. C. P. 130307.
Jipijapa, Ecuador.
CITE THIS ARTICLE AS:
C. Morales-Bayetero, E. A.
Llanes-Cedeño, C.
Mafla-Yépez and A.
Rodríguez-Rodríguez
”Assessment of the
mechanical and environmental
behavior of diesel engines
operating with biodiesel
mixtures”, Revista Facultad de
Ingeniería Universidad de
Antioquia, no. 111, pp. 9-20,
Apr-Jun 2024. [Online].
Available: https:
//www.doi.org/10.17533/
udea.redin.20230215
ARTICLE INFO:
Received: March 02, 2022
Accepted: February 27, 2023
Available online: February 28,
2023
KEYWORDS:
Biodiesel; opacity; diesel
engines; polluting gases
Biodiésel; opacidad; motores
diésel; gases contaminantes
ABSTRACT: Biodiesel is one of the best renewable fuels to reduce dependence on
petroleum derivatives. The objective of this work is to evaluate the mechanical and
environmental performance in compression ignition engines with the use of biodiesel
in proportions of 5 % (B5), 15 % (B15), and mixtures with additive B5A and B15A, through
the experimentation and use of automotive measuring equipment, for mass application
in automotive vehicles. The methodology applied is based on the development of two
stages; the first is the preparation of the mixtures to be used in the research with
the corresponding diesel/biodiesel percentage for each, and the second is the analysis
of mechanical and environmental behavior through the use of properly calibrated and
updated diagnostic equipment. The results show that the B5 mixture shows the
best values, managing to maintain power and torque with non-significant decreases
compared to diesel, with averages of 1.1 % and 0.3 %, respectively. As the percentage
of biodiesel increases, the opacity value decreases from 44.8 % with B15 and 59.3 %
with B15A. In relation to exhaust gases, additive mixtures show the most significant
reduction in CO2, CO, and HC emissions, while NOx emissions rise slightly as biodiesel
concentration increases, but statistically, it is not significant.
RESUMEN: El biodiésel es uno de los combustibles renovables con mejores alternativas
para disminuir la dependencia de los derivados del petróleo. El objetivo del trabajo es
evaluar el desempeño mecánico y ambiental en motores de encendido a compresión con
el uso de biodiésel en proporciones del 5% (B5), 15% (B15) y mezclas con aditivo B5A y
B15A, mediante la experimentación y uso de equipos de medición automotriz, para su
aplicación masiva en los vehículos automotrices. La metodología aplicada se basa en el
desarrollo de dos etapas; la primera consiste en la preparación de las mezclas a utilizar
en la investigación con el porcentaje de diésel/biodiésel correspondiente para cada una,
y la segunda el análisis del comportamiento mecánico y ambiental mediante el uso de
equipos de diagnóstico debidamente calibrados y actualizados. En los resultados se
obtiene que la mezcla B5 muestra los mejores valores, logrando mantener la potencia
y torque con disminuciones no significativas respecto al diésel con promedios de 1.1% y
0.3%, respectivamente. A medida que aumenta el porcentaje de biodiésel, se reduce el
valor de opacidad de 44.8% con B15 y 59.3% con B15A.
En relación a los gases de escape, las mezclas con aditivos muestran la mayor reducción en las emisiones de CO2,
CO y HC, mientras que las emisiones de NOx se elevan
ligeramente a medida que aumenta la concentración de
biodiésel, pero estadísticamente no es significativo.
9
* Corresponding author: Edilberto Antonio Llanes-Cedeño
E-mail: antonio.llanes@uisek.edu.ec
ISSN 0120-6230
e-ISSN 2422-2844
DOI: 10.17533/udea.redin.20230215 9
C. Morales-Bayetero et al., Revista Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad de Antioquia, No. 111, pp. 9-20, 2024
1. Introduction
Transport is one of the sectors with the most significant
impact on the energy consumption matrix, representing
61.7 % of global energy consumption [1], and is also
responsible for 24.4 % of greenhouse gas emissions from
fossil fuel combustion [2]. For these reasons, searching
for new sources of clean and renewable energy has
been necessary to help reduce dependence on oil and
its derivatives [3]. One of the best alternatives is the
development of biofuels such as biodiesel, which can be
used in internal combustion engines without the need to
modify them, thus reducing environmental pollution; in
addition, they are sustainable and economical in nature,
unlike conventional fuels [4].
Biodiesel is the most widely used biofuel and is produced
from vegetable oils such as soybeans, cotton seeds,
sunflower, and palm oil [5]. It shows better characteristics
in ignition quality, lack of sulfur and aromatic content,
renewal capacity, and biodegradability, and 30 % to 71 %
reduction in emissions of polluting gases [6], in addition,
to providing less engine wear, lower oil consumption and
better thermal efficiency compared to that of traditional
diesel fuel [7].
The consequence of the use of fossil fuels during the
combustion process is the generation of emissions of
polluting gases, such as: carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon
monoxide (CO), unburned hydrocarbons and nitrogen
oxides (NOx), and sulfurous oxides (SOx) [8]. By using
biodiesel in compression ignition engines, the reduction
in exhaust gas emissions is achieved because the biofuel
contains approximately between 12-18 carbons, whereas
the conventional diesel molecule can have up to 20 carbons
[9].
In most of the research carried out, it is observed
that the emission of smoke is reduced when using
mixtures of biodiesel compared to diesel, because the
atomic bond of oxygen and biodiesel satisfies the positive
chemical control over the formation of soot [10]. Results
of experiments with the use of biodiesel mixtures in a
compression ignition engine show a 73% reduction in HC
emissions and a 46% reduction in carbon monoxide [11].
However, research reports that the use of biodiesel
in compression engines increases NOx [12], which can
be caused by the injection advance, flame temperature
increase, higher fuel density [13], and an increase in
the speed of the combustion process by the presence of
oxygen attached to the fuel [14].
In relation to the mechanical performance of the engine,
[15] indicate that for a B10 mixture, the torque and
power parameters are maintained compared to diesel.
In addition, by analyzing the characteristics of engine
performance and emissions, it is observed that the use of
additives improves combustion, reducing the delay in the
ignition and fuel consumption [16].
According to [17], it states that additives added to
diesel fuel to improve engine life must meet a series of
properties, such as: absorbing water, preventing wear and
corrosion in the feeding system, protecting nozzles, and
preventing the growth of microorganisms, among others.
Every day the internal combustion engine is required
to reduce the polluting gases produced by combustion;
one of the pollutants associated with the diesel engine is
particulate matter, for which methods are continuously
developed which is according to [18], the use of additives
and mixed fuels. The use of additives and the application
of filters was the most convenient system for reducing
the high levels of particulate generated in passenger
vehicles and light trucks in the early 90s in the USA.
The use of different types of additives in biodiesel blends
helps to improve performance in the internal combustion
engine [19]. The addition of these elements improves fuel
properties, consumption, and reduction of polluting gas
emissions [20].
There are various types of metal-based additives,
cetane improvers, antioxidants, oxygenated additives, etc.,
which are used to improve the properties of biodiesel
[21], and their application has significant effects on the
performance of the engine, exhaust gas emission, and fuel
consumption [22].
Metal-based additives minimize viscosity, and pour point
and increase flash point properties, in addition to reducing
brake power due to their catalytic effect [23].
On the other hand, antioxidant additives present better
characteristics to increase the cetane number and flash
point, but the calorific value is decreased [24].
Additives perform excellent work when used in biodiesel
blends because they increase the performance of the
diesel engine, improving combustion and reducing
emissions [25].
From the above, and considering that transport is
part of the industrial processes from the assurance of
the raw material to the commercialization, and which
represents one of the areas of greatest environmental
and energy impact, not only in Ecuador but globally, it is
essential to carry out research on the different types of
biofuels to evaluate its behavior and to the best alternative.
This research aims to evaluate mechanical (torque and
power), and environmental performance (opacity, exhaust
gases) in compression ignition engines with proportions
of 5% (B5), 15% (B15) and biodiesel mixtures with additive
B5A and B15A, through the experimentation and use of
automotive measuring equipment, for mass application in
automotive vehicles.
10
1. Introduction
Transport is one of the sectors with the most significant
impact on the energy consumption matrix, representing
61.7 % of global energy consumption [1], and is also
responsible for 24.4 % of greenhouse gas emissions from
fossil fuel combustion [2]. For these reasons, searching
for new sources of clean and renewable energy has
been necessary to help reduce dependence on oil and
its derivatives [3]. One of the best alternatives is the
development of biofuels such as biodiesel, which can be
used in internal combustion engines without the need to
modify them, thus reducing environmental pollution; in
addition, they are sustainable and economical in nature,
unlike conventional fuels [4].
Biodiesel is the most widely used biofuel and is produced
from vegetable oils such as soybeans, cotton seeds,
sunflower, and palm oil [5]. It shows better characteristics
in ignition quality, lack of sulfur and aromatic content,
renewal capacity, and biodegradability, and 30 % to 71 %
reduction in emissions of polluting gases [6], in addition,
to providing less engine wear, lower oil consumption and
better thermal efficiency compared to that of traditional
diesel fuel [7].
The consequence of the use of fossil fuels during the
combustion process is the generation of emissions of
polluting gases, such as: carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon
monoxide (CO), unburned hydrocarbons and nitrogen
oxides (NOx), and sulfurous oxides (SOx) [8]. By using
biodiesel in compression ignition engines, the reduction
in exhaust gas emissions is achieved because the biofuel
contains approximately between 12-18 carbons, whereas
the conventional diesel molecule can have up to 20 carbons
[9].
In most of the research carried out, it is observed
that the emission of smoke is reduced when using
mixtures of biodiesel compared to diesel, because the
atomic bond of oxygen and biodiesel satisfies the positive
chemical control over the formation of soot [10]. Results
of experiments with the use of biodiesel mixtures in a
compression ignition engine show a 73% reduction in HC
emissions and a 46% reduction in carbon monoxide [11].
However, research reports that the use of biodiesel
in compression engines increases NOx [12], which can
be caused by the injection advance, flame temperature
increase, higher fuel density [13], and an increase in
the speed of the combustion process by the presence of
oxygen attached to the fuel [14].
In relation to the mechanical performance of the engine,
[15] indicate that for a B10 mixture, the torque and
power parameters are maintained compared to diesel.
In addition, by analyzing the characteristics of engine
performance and emissions, it is observed that the use of
additives improves combustion, reducing the delay in the
ignition and fuel consumption [16].
According to [17], it states that additives added to
diesel fuel to improve engine life must meet a series of
properties, such as: absorbing water, preventing wear and
corrosion in the feeding system, protecting nozzles, and
preventing the growth of microorganisms, among others.
Every day the internal combustion engine is required
to reduce the polluting gases produced by combustion;
one of the pollutants associated with the diesel engine is
particulate matter, for which methods are continuously
developed which is according to [18], the use of additives
and mixed fuels. The use of additives and the application
of filters was the most convenient system for reducing
the high levels of particulate generated in passenger
vehicles and light trucks in the early 90s in the USA.
The use of different types of additives in biodiesel blends
helps to improve performance in the internal combustion
engine [19]. The addition of these elements improves fuel
properties, consumption, and reduction of polluting gas
emissions [20].
There are various types of metal-based additives,
cetane improvers, antioxidants, oxygenated additives, etc.,
which are used to improve the properties of biodiesel
[21], and their application has significant effects on the
performance of the engine, exhaust gas emission, and fuel
consumption [22].
Metal-based additives minimize viscosity, and pour point
and increase flash point properties, in addition to reducing
brake power due to their catalytic effect [23].
On the other hand, antioxidant additives present better
characteristics to increase the cetane number and flash
point, but the calorific value is decreased [24].
Additives perform excellent work when used in biodiesel
blends because they increase the performance of the
diesel engine, improving combustion and reducing
emissions [25].
From the above, and considering that transport is
part of the industrial processes from the assurance of
the raw material to the commercialization, and which
represents one of the areas of greatest environmental
and energy impact, not only in Ecuador but globally, it is
essential to carry out research on the different types of
biofuels to evaluate its behavior and to the best alternative.
This research aims to evaluate mechanical (torque and
power), and environmental performance (opacity, exhaust
gases) in compression ignition engines with proportions
of 5% (B5), 15% (B15) and biodiesel mixtures with additive
B5A and B15A, through the experimentation and use of
automotive measuring equipment, for mass application in
automotive vehicles.
10
C. Morales-Bayetero et al., Revista Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad de Antioquia, No. 111, pp. 9-20, 2024
Figure 1 Flow gram of the applied method [15]
2. Materials and methods
This work is based on the development of two stages in
order to meet the objectives set. The first consists of the
preparation of the mixtures to be used in the research
with the corresponding percentage of diesel and biodiesel
for each mixture; the biodiesel used was obtained from
the transesterification of palm oil to which the vacuum
distillation and kinematic viscosity tests at 40 ◦C were
carried out in a specialized laboratory in order to verify
that the biodiesel has the appropriate characteristics to
be used in diesel/biodiesel mixtures; and the second, the
analysis of the mechanical behavior, opacity and exhaust
gases emitted by the engine operating with diesel fuel
only and mixtures with biodiesel B5, B15, in addition to
mixtures with additive B5A, B15A. The tests are carried
out at 2,220 masl, using updated and properly calibrated
diagnostic equipment; in addition to each fuel mixture,
four measurements were developed for each parameter,
in order to obtain 95% confidence [26]. The additive in the
different samples is mixed in the quantity of 0.07 grams
per gallon of fuel, as indicated by the manufacturer. The
additive properties are shown in Table 1.
Table 1 Technical data of the
additive
Parameter Value
Boiling point 255 ◦C
Melting point 70 ◦C
Vapor density 5.3 (air =1)
Vapor pressure < 1 psi
Specific gravity 1.04
Density 0.992 g/mL
Stability Stable
Source: [27]
The FEROX additive was selected for research, based on
the interest in its commercialization in the Ecuadorian
market, in addition to being a solid additive compared to
others available that are liquids such as: Bardahl Additive,
Qualco R-2, among others.
Figure 2 Average torque with diesel and biodiesel mixes
2.1 Diesel engine behavior
The research development seeks to establish the variation
of values in opacity, exhaust emission, and mechanical
performance of the diesel engine by applying biodiesel and
diesel mixtures. Figure 1 depicts the diagram of the testing
process developed in the two vehicles; for this purpose, the
opacity tests were run on a Brain Bee Opa-100 opacimeter,
the gas analysis on the Brain Bee AGS-688 analyzer and
the mechanical tests were developed on a Vamag BPA-V2R
dynamometer.
The characteristics of the vehicles used in the different
tests are indicated in Table 2.
2.2 Torque and power testing procedure
The assessment of the mechanical performance of the test
vehicles was carried out through the use of an automotive
dynamometer, where it must first be verified that the
diameter of the vehicle wheels and the weight capacity are
11
Figure 1 Flow gram of the applied method [15]
2. Materials and methods
This work is based on the development of two stages in
order to meet the objectives set. The first consists of the
preparation of the mixtures to be used in the research
with the corresponding percentage of diesel and biodiesel
for each mixture; the biodiesel used was obtained from
the transesterification of palm oil to which the vacuum
distillation and kinematic viscosity tests at 40 ◦C were
carried out in a specialized laboratory in order to verify
that the biodiesel has the appropriate characteristics to
be used in diesel/biodiesel mixtures; and the second, the
analysis of the mechanical behavior, opacity and exhaust
gases emitted by the engine operating with diesel fuel
only and mixtures with biodiesel B5, B15, in addition to
mixtures with additive B5A, B15A. The tests are carried
out at 2,220 masl, using updated and properly calibrated
diagnostic equipment; in addition to each fuel mixture,
four measurements were developed for each parameter,
in order to obtain 95% confidence [26]. The additive in the
different samples is mixed in the quantity of 0.07 grams
per gallon of fuel, as indicated by the manufacturer. The
additive properties are shown in Table 1.
Table 1 Technical data of the
additive
Parameter Value
Boiling point 255 ◦C
Melting point 70 ◦C
Vapor density 5.3 (air =1)
Vapor pressure < 1 psi
Specific gravity 1.04
Density 0.992 g/mL
Stability Stable
Source: [27]
The FEROX additive was selected for research, based on
the interest in its commercialization in the Ecuadorian
market, in addition to being a solid additive compared to
others available that are liquids such as: Bardahl Additive,
Qualco R-2, among others.
Figure 2 Average torque with diesel and biodiesel mixes
2.1 Diesel engine behavior
The research development seeks to establish the variation
of values in opacity, exhaust emission, and mechanical
performance of the diesel engine by applying biodiesel and
diesel mixtures. Figure 1 depicts the diagram of the testing
process developed in the two vehicles; for this purpose, the
opacity tests were run on a Brain Bee Opa-100 opacimeter,
the gas analysis on the Brain Bee AGS-688 analyzer and
the mechanical tests were developed on a Vamag BPA-V2R
dynamometer.
The characteristics of the vehicles used in the different
tests are indicated in Table 2.
2.2 Torque and power testing procedure
The assessment of the mechanical performance of the test
vehicles was carried out through the use of an automotive
dynamometer, where it must first be verified that the
diameter of the vehicle wheels and the weight capacity are
11
C. Morales-Bayetero et al., Revista Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad de Antioquia, No. 111, pp. 9-20, 2024
Figure 3 Box graphic and torque whiskers between vehicles
and fuels
Table 2 Main features of vehicles
Model Mazda BT-50 CS Ford Ranger
4X2 STD 2.5 FL 2.5 TDCi 4X4
Fuel feed Common Rail Common Rail
Direct Injection Direct Injection
Cubic capacity 2,500 cc 2,500 cc
Power 118 HP / 143 HP at
3,500 rpm. 3,500 rpm
Torque 266 Nm / 330 Nm at
2,000 rpm. 1,800 rpm
Compression ratio 18 : 1 18 : 1
within the values set by the equipment manufacturer, and
then place the vehicle within the dynamometer area and
ensure that it is belted in order to prevent it from leaving
the rollers.
To start testing, it is necessary to ensure that the
diesel engine is at the normal operating temperature and
to check the alignment of the powertrain in relation to the
dynamometer rollers by turning the wheels at a speed of
20 km/h; then entering the technical data relating to the
test vehicle into the software.
In the development of the tests, the gear of the vehicle
should be placed in 4th, which establishes a transmission
ratio of 1:1; accelerate the vehicle to the maximum speed
of ”rpm cut” (between 4,500 and 6,000 rpm) and finally,
step on the clutch until the power bank stops [28].
2.3 Opacity testing procedure
The opacity value is obtained through the execution of
free acceleration cycles, for which the vehicle must be in
good condition and with the engine operating at normal
operating temperature in an idling state. In the procedure,
the throttle pedal should be progressively pressed to
revolutions above 2,500, and held in that state until the
opacimeter calculates and specifies the obtained values;
finally, stop accelerating to keep the engine in an idling
state. It is necessary to allow approximately 10 s to
start the next cycle of free acceleration, and the opacity
Torque= 243.838 – 64.9125*A –
1.2375*B – 0.4875*A*B
Figure 4 Estimated response surface of the torque variable
Figure 5 Standardized Torque diagram for torque
Figure 6 Average power with diesel and biodiesel mixes
Figure 7 Box graphic and power whiskers between vehicles and
fuels
evaluation should be performed at least five cycles with
the procedure described above [29, 30].
12
Figure 3 Box graphic and torque whiskers between vehicles
and fuels
Table 2 Main features of vehicles
Model Mazda BT-50 CS Ford Ranger
4X2 STD 2.5 FL 2.5 TDCi 4X4
Fuel feed Common Rail Common Rail
Direct Injection Direct Injection
Cubic capacity 2,500 cc 2,500 cc
Power 118 HP / 143 HP at
3,500 rpm. 3,500 rpm
Torque 266 Nm / 330 Nm at
2,000 rpm. 1,800 rpm
Compression ratio 18 : 1 18 : 1
within the values set by the equipment manufacturer, and
then place the vehicle within the dynamometer area and
ensure that it is belted in order to prevent it from leaving
the rollers.
To start testing, it is necessary to ensure that the
diesel engine is at the normal operating temperature and
to check the alignment of the powertrain in relation to the
dynamometer rollers by turning the wheels at a speed of
20 km/h; then entering the technical data relating to the
test vehicle into the software.
In the development of the tests, the gear of the vehicle
should be placed in 4th, which establishes a transmission
ratio of 1:1; accelerate the vehicle to the maximum speed
of ”rpm cut” (between 4,500 and 6,000 rpm) and finally,
step on the clutch until the power bank stops [28].
2.3 Opacity testing procedure
The opacity value is obtained through the execution of
free acceleration cycles, for which the vehicle must be in
good condition and with the engine operating at normal
operating temperature in an idling state. In the procedure,
the throttle pedal should be progressively pressed to
revolutions above 2,500, and held in that state until the
opacimeter calculates and specifies the obtained values;
finally, stop accelerating to keep the engine in an idling
state. It is necessary to allow approximately 10 s to
start the next cycle of free acceleration, and the opacity
Torque= 243.838 – 64.9125*A –
1.2375*B – 0.4875*A*B
Figure 4 Estimated response surface of the torque variable
Figure 5 Standardized Torque diagram for torque
Figure 6 Average power with diesel and biodiesel mixes
Figure 7 Box graphic and power whiskers between vehicles and
fuels
evaluation should be performed at least five cycles with
the procedure described above [29, 30].
12
C. Morales-Bayetero et al., Revista Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad de Antioquia, No. 111, pp. 9-20, 2024
P otencie = 69.739218.7228 ∗
A0.86125 ∗ B0.32875 ∗ A ∗ B
Figure 8 Estimated response surface of the power variable
The first acceleration cycle allows the accumulated soot
to be removed from the vehicle’s exhaust system and also
to the operator to adapt to the proper movement of the
throttle. The remaining four acceleration cycles determine
the average of the maximum smoke value emitted and
corrected in each of the cycles performed. According to
[29] and [30], the test validation results on the opacimeter
should not exceed 2% in the opacity value; in addition,
the average smoke in the five cycles performed should
not exceed the 5% difference between the minimum and
maximum values.
Figure 9 Standardized Pareto diagram for power
2.4 Exhaust gas testing procedure
The exhaust gas analysis is performed with the vehicle at
normal operating temperature, in idle states, and at 2500
revolutions. For each fuel mixture, four measurements
are executed. The measurement time in each test is
approximately 30 seconds in order to ensure that the
obtained values are stable. For evaluation with the
Figure 10 Average opacity with diesel and biodiesel mixtures
different mixtures, the equipment should be expected
to approve a period of warming, into, stabilization, and
sealing throughout the measuring probe line to avoid
erroneous data during the procedure. For the data intake
in relenti, revolutions nor must be greater than 1,200
rpm, and for high-speed testing, the vehicle must be
held up to 2,500 rpm, and the accelerator held steady for
approximately 10 s.
Figure 11 Box graphic and opacity whiskers between vehicles
and fuels
Opacity = 2.91875 + 1.40875*A –
0.35625*B – 0.24125*A*B
Figure 12 Estimated response surface of the opacity variable
13
P otencie = 69.739218.7228 ∗
A0.86125 ∗ B0.32875 ∗ A ∗ B
Figure 8 Estimated response surface of the power variable
The first acceleration cycle allows the accumulated soot
to be removed from the vehicle’s exhaust system and also
to the operator to adapt to the proper movement of the
throttle. The remaining four acceleration cycles determine
the average of the maximum smoke value emitted and
corrected in each of the cycles performed. According to
[29] and [30], the test validation results on the opacimeter
should not exceed 2% in the opacity value; in addition,
the average smoke in the five cycles performed should
not exceed the 5% difference between the minimum and
maximum values.
Figure 9 Standardized Pareto diagram for power
2.4 Exhaust gas testing procedure
The exhaust gas analysis is performed with the vehicle at
normal operating temperature, in idle states, and at 2500
revolutions. For each fuel mixture, four measurements
are executed. The measurement time in each test is
approximately 30 seconds in order to ensure that the
obtained values are stable. For evaluation with the
Figure 10 Average opacity with diesel and biodiesel mixtures
different mixtures, the equipment should be expected
to approve a period of warming, into, stabilization, and
sealing throughout the measuring probe line to avoid
erroneous data during the procedure. For the data intake
in relenti, revolutions nor must be greater than 1,200
rpm, and for high-speed testing, the vehicle must be
held up to 2,500 rpm, and the accelerator held steady for
approximately 10 s.
Figure 11 Box graphic and opacity whiskers between vehicles
and fuels
Opacity = 2.91875 + 1.40875*A –
0.35625*B – 0.24125*A*B
Figure 12 Estimated response surface of the opacity variable
13
C. Morales-Bayetero et al., Revista Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad de Antioquia, No. 111, pp. 9-20, 2024
Table 3 Nomenclature of independent variables and their levels
Factors Levels Nomenclature Designation
Vehicle Truck 1 A1 1
(MBT-50)
Truck 2 A2 -1
(F-RANGER)
Fuels
Diesel 1 1
B5 2 2
B5A 3 3
B15 4 4
B15A 5 5
rpm idling speed - -1
2,500 rpm - 1
Figure 13 Standardized Torque diagram for torque
2.5 Experiment design
For the research, the variation of the variables of: torque
(Nm), power (kW), opacity (%), carbon monoxide CO (%),
carbon dioxide CO2 (%), hydrocarbons HC (ppm), and
nitrogen oxides NOx (ppm) is analyzed, with the application
of the different diesel/biodiesel mixtures in the vehicles
tested. For the statistical analysis, the nomenclature
indicated in Table 3 is established for the independent
variables and their levels.
The analysis and comparison of results are performed by
the application of the Statgraphics Centurion XVI software,
to determine whether there is a significant difference
between the experimental groups or not; the ANOVA
analysis was used, applying multiple comparison tests
of LSD (Least Significant Difference) means, for 95 %
confidence. The analysis and comparison of the results
are performed by means of response surface; treatments
(combinations) are formed, as shown in Table 4 [31, 32].
3. Results and discussion
After the development of the tests indicated in the
methodology, the analysis of the values obtained in the
variation of power, torque, engine opacity, and exhaust
gases, which allows the evaluation of the behavior of the
mixtures experienced to be carried out.
Table 4 Treatments for the analysis of results
Combinations
No Vehicles Fuels
Combination
T1 A1 Diesel
T2 A1 B5
T3 A1 B15
T4 A1 B5A
T5 A1 B15A
T6 A2 Diesel
T7 A2 B5
T8 A2 B15
T9 A2 B5A
T10 A2 B15A
3.1 Properties of experienced fuels
Vacuum distillation and kinematic viscosity tests at 40
◦C to biodiesel (B100) were carried out in order to verify
whether their characteristics are suitable for use in the
diesel/biodiesel mixtures proposed in the research. In
the case of the mixtures, a complete characterization was
performed. Table 5 shows the values obtained in the tests
carried out, which are within the parameters established
by the standard [33].
3.2 Torque results
Figure 2 shows the average torque values obtained in
vehicles using diesel and biodiesel mixtures at their
highest speed are indicated. As a general average, there
is a tendency to decrease the value of the engine torque as
the proportion of biodiesel increases, obtaining the best
(maximum) results with B5 compared to the rest of the
mixtures. In Table 6 and Figure 3, the multi-range test and
box graphic and torque whiskers are indicated by applying
Fisher’s Significant Difference Analysis (LSD) with a 5.0 %
risk. It is observed that there is a significant difference
between the vehicles, with the F-Ranger being the one
with the best results. The results coincide with those
obtained in the research carried out by [15], which indicate
that the most optimal mixtures are with low percentages
of biodiesel while retaining the value of torque insignificant
decreases, concluding that to the increase the proportion
of biodiesel in the mixtures the thermal efficiency of the
combustion reduces, due to the increase in density and
viscosity of the fuel.
Figure 4 indicates the ratio of the torque variable to
vehicles and fuel type, defining the mathematical model
that relates them, highlighting the influence of the
vehicles, as indicated in Pareto Figure 5.
14
Table 3 Nomenclature of independent variables and their levels
Factors Levels Nomenclature Designation
Vehicle Truck 1 A1 1
(MBT-50)
Truck 2 A2 -1
(F-RANGER)
Fuels
Diesel 1 1
B5 2 2
B5A 3 3
B15 4 4
B15A 5 5
rpm idling speed - -1
2,500 rpm - 1
Figure 13 Standardized Torque diagram for torque
2.5 Experiment design
For the research, the variation of the variables of: torque
(Nm), power (kW), opacity (%), carbon monoxide CO (%),
carbon dioxide CO2 (%), hydrocarbons HC (ppm), and
nitrogen oxides NOx (ppm) is analyzed, with the application
of the different diesel/biodiesel mixtures in the vehicles
tested. For the statistical analysis, the nomenclature
indicated in Table 3 is established for the independent
variables and their levels.
The analysis and comparison of results are performed by
the application of the Statgraphics Centurion XVI software,
to determine whether there is a significant difference
between the experimental groups or not; the ANOVA
analysis was used, applying multiple comparison tests
of LSD (Least Significant Difference) means, for 95 %
confidence. The analysis and comparison of the results
are performed by means of response surface; treatments
(combinations) are formed, as shown in Table 4 [31, 32].
3. Results and discussion
After the development of the tests indicated in the
methodology, the analysis of the values obtained in the
variation of power, torque, engine opacity, and exhaust
gases, which allows the evaluation of the behavior of the
mixtures experienced to be carried out.
Table 4 Treatments for the analysis of results
Combinations
No Vehicles Fuels
Combination
T1 A1 Diesel
T2 A1 B5
T3 A1 B15
T4 A1 B5A
T5 A1 B15A
T6 A2 Diesel
T7 A2 B5
T8 A2 B15
T9 A2 B5A
T10 A2 B15A
3.1 Properties of experienced fuels
Vacuum distillation and kinematic viscosity tests at 40
◦C to biodiesel (B100) were carried out in order to verify
whether their characteristics are suitable for use in the
diesel/biodiesel mixtures proposed in the research. In
the case of the mixtures, a complete characterization was
performed. Table 5 shows the values obtained in the tests
carried out, which are within the parameters established
by the standard [33].
3.2 Torque results
Figure 2 shows the average torque values obtained in
vehicles using diesel and biodiesel mixtures at their
highest speed are indicated. As a general average, there
is a tendency to decrease the value of the engine torque as
the proportion of biodiesel increases, obtaining the best
(maximum) results with B5 compared to the rest of the
mixtures. In Table 6 and Figure 3, the multi-range test and
box graphic and torque whiskers are indicated by applying
Fisher’s Significant Difference Analysis (LSD) with a 5.0 %
risk. It is observed that there is a significant difference
between the vehicles, with the F-Ranger being the one
with the best results. The results coincide with those
obtained in the research carried out by [15], which indicate
that the most optimal mixtures are with low percentages
of biodiesel while retaining the value of torque insignificant
decreases, concluding that to the increase the proportion
of biodiesel in the mixtures the thermal efficiency of the
combustion reduces, due to the increase in density and
viscosity of the fuel.
Figure 4 indicates the ratio of the torque variable to
vehicles and fuel type, defining the mathematical model
that relates them, highlighting the influence of the
vehicles, as indicated in Pareto Figure 5.
14
C. Morales-Bayetero et al., Revista Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad de Antioquia, No. 111, pp. 9-20, 2024
Figure 14 Average values with diesel and biodiesel mixtures: a) CO2 b) CO c) HC d) NOx
CO2 = 1.993 + 0.0225 ∗
A0.100857 ∗ B + 0.186 ∗ C +
0.0005 ∗ A ∗ B + 0.52 ∗ A ∗ C +
0.0121429 ∗ B20.002 ∗ B ∗ C
Figure 15 Estimated response surface of the CO2 variable (Idling speed and 2,500 rpm)
Figure 16 Standardized Pareto diagram for CO2
3.3 Power results
Figure 6 indicates the power value for the two vehicles with
the use of mixtures B5, B5A, B15, B15A, and conventional
diesel at maximum regimes. The power value is higher
with the use of conventional diesel, while the B5 mixture
shows a minimum reduction of 1.83% and 0.40% for
MBT-50 and F-Ranger, respectively. Table 7 and Figure
7 show the results of the multi-range test and box
chart and power whiskers applying Fisher’s Significant
Difference Analysis (LSD) analysis with a 5.0% risk. It is
observed that there are significant differences in vehicles,
where F-Ranger gets the best results. As with torque
values, these powers of vehicles tend to decrease in
value as the percentage of biodiesel increases. The
results are consistent with those obtained by [15] and [34],
where they indicate that the most optimal mixtures are
with low percentages of biodiesel, managing to maintain
power without significant decreases, due to the lower
heating values (approx. LHV 9500 kcal/kg) compared to
conventional diesel (approx. LHV 10800 kcal/kg).
The lower power reduction for the two vehicles was
achieved with the B5 fuel and the largest reduction in its
value with the use of the B15A mixture compared to diesel.
Figure 8 indicates the ratio of the power variable according
to vehicles and fuel type, defining its mathematical model,
and highlighting the influence of vehicles, as seen in Pareto
Figure 9. These results coincide with the study carried out
by [15], where they obtained opacity reductions by adding
B10 mixtures in both experienced vehicles.
15
Figure 14 Average values with diesel and biodiesel mixtures: a) CO2 b) CO c) HC d) NOx
CO2 = 1.993 + 0.0225 ∗
A0.100857 ∗ B + 0.186 ∗ C +
0.0005 ∗ A ∗ B + 0.52 ∗ A ∗ C +
0.0121429 ∗ B20.002 ∗ B ∗ C
Figure 15 Estimated response surface of the CO2 variable (Idling speed and 2,500 rpm)
Figure 16 Standardized Pareto diagram for CO2
3.3 Power results
Figure 6 indicates the power value for the two vehicles with
the use of mixtures B5, B5A, B15, B15A, and conventional
diesel at maximum regimes. The power value is higher
with the use of conventional diesel, while the B5 mixture
shows a minimum reduction of 1.83% and 0.40% for
MBT-50 and F-Ranger, respectively. Table 7 and Figure
7 show the results of the multi-range test and box
chart and power whiskers applying Fisher’s Significant
Difference Analysis (LSD) analysis with a 5.0% risk. It is
observed that there are significant differences in vehicles,
where F-Ranger gets the best results. As with torque
values, these powers of vehicles tend to decrease in
value as the percentage of biodiesel increases. The
results are consistent with those obtained by [15] and [34],
where they indicate that the most optimal mixtures are
with low percentages of biodiesel, managing to maintain
power without significant decreases, due to the lower
heating values (approx. LHV 9500 kcal/kg) compared to
conventional diesel (approx. LHV 10800 kcal/kg).
The lower power reduction for the two vehicles was
achieved with the B5 fuel and the largest reduction in its
value with the use of the B15A mixture compared to diesel.
Figure 8 indicates the ratio of the power variable according
to vehicles and fuel type, defining its mathematical model,
and highlighting the influence of vehicles, as seen in Pareto
Figure 9. These results coincide with the study carried out
by [15], where they obtained opacity reductions by adding
B10 mixtures in both experienced vehicles.
15
C. Morales-Bayetero et al., Revista Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad de Antioquia, No. 111, pp. 9-20, 2024
Figure 17 Estimated response surface for CO analysis (Idling speed and 2,500 rpm)
CO = 0.2685 + 0.00625 ∗
A0.0753929 ∗ B + 0.1375 ∗ C +
0.00125 ∗ A ∗ B + 0.0116071 ∗
B20.00125 ∗ B ∗ C
Table 5 Properties of experienced fuel mixtures
Fuel properties Diesel Biodiesel
Diesel/ 5% Diesel/ 15% Diesel/ 5% Diesel/ 15% INEN
Premium
biodiesel biodiesel biodiesel biodiesel Standard:
(B5) (B15) -additive -additive 1489:2012
(B5A) (B15A)
Number of cetane 51.7 - 53.2 53.2 51.9 52.5 45 min
Distillation curve 336 355 336 343 342 343 360 max
T90 − 90% evap., (◦C)
Flash Point (◦C) 61 - 63 66 61 64 51 min
Sulfur content (ppm) 145.93 - 122.7 106.76 119.75 105.99 500 max
Corrosion to the 1A - 1A 1A 1A 1A 3
copper sheet
Kinematic viscosity at 3.528 4.81 3.445 3.459 3.459 3.283 2 - 5
40◦C (mm2/s)
Water and <0.05 - <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 0.05 max
sediments (%)
Table 6 Analysis of significant differences LSD – Torque
Cases Average Homogeneous
groups
T5 (A1B15A) 4 169.0 X
T4 (A1B15) 4 172.75 X
T3 (A1B5A) 4 175.25 X
T2 (A1B5) 4 175.5 X
T1 (A1Diesel) 4 176.25 X
T10 (A2B15A) 4 304.25 X
T9 (A2B15) 4 306.5 X
T8 (A2B5A) 4 306.5 X
T6 (A2Diesel) 4 307.25 X
T7 (A2B5) 4 308.0 X
Figure 18 Standardized Pareto diagram for CO.
3.4 Opacity results
Figure 10 shows the level of opacity obtained in the vehicles
tested with the use of diesel and biodiesel mixtures, where
a reduction in the opacity value of 59.3% is evidenced for
MBT-50 with the B15A mixture and a decrease of 44.8%
with mix B15 for F-Ranger. In Table 8 and Figure 11, the
results of the multi-range test and case chart and parsing
of the opacity are shown by applying Fisher’s Significant
Difference Analysis (LSD) with a 5.0% risk, showing the
16
Figure 17 Estimated response surface for CO analysis (Idling speed and 2,500 rpm)
CO = 0.2685 + 0.00625 ∗
A0.0753929 ∗ B + 0.1375 ∗ C +
0.00125 ∗ A ∗ B + 0.0116071 ∗
B20.00125 ∗ B ∗ C
Table 5 Properties of experienced fuel mixtures
Fuel properties Diesel Biodiesel
Diesel/ 5% Diesel/ 15% Diesel/ 5% Diesel/ 15% INEN
Premium
biodiesel biodiesel biodiesel biodiesel Standard:
(B5) (B15) -additive -additive 1489:2012
(B5A) (B15A)
Number of cetane 51.7 - 53.2 53.2 51.9 52.5 45 min
Distillation curve 336 355 336 343 342 343 360 max
T90 − 90% evap., (◦C)
Flash Point (◦C) 61 - 63 66 61 64 51 min
Sulfur content (ppm) 145.93 - 122.7 106.76 119.75 105.99 500 max
Corrosion to the 1A - 1A 1A 1A 1A 3
copper sheet
Kinematic viscosity at 3.528 4.81 3.445 3.459 3.459 3.283 2 - 5
40◦C (mm2/s)
Water and <0.05 - <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 0.05 max
sediments (%)
Table 6 Analysis of significant differences LSD – Torque
Cases Average Homogeneous
groups
T5 (A1B15A) 4 169.0 X
T4 (A1B15) 4 172.75 X
T3 (A1B5A) 4 175.25 X
T2 (A1B5) 4 175.5 X
T1 (A1Diesel) 4 176.25 X
T10 (A2B15A) 4 304.25 X
T9 (A2B15) 4 306.5 X
T8 (A2B5A) 4 306.5 X
T6 (A2Diesel) 4 307.25 X
T7 (A2B5) 4 308.0 X
Figure 18 Standardized Pareto diagram for CO.
3.4 Opacity results
Figure 10 shows the level of opacity obtained in the vehicles
tested with the use of diesel and biodiesel mixtures, where
a reduction in the opacity value of 59.3% is evidenced for
MBT-50 with the B15A mixture and a decrease of 44.8%
with mix B15 for F-Ranger. In Table 8 and Figure 11, the
results of the multi-range test and case chart and parsing
of the opacity are shown by applying Fisher’s Significant
Difference Analysis (LSD) with a 5.0% risk, showing the
16
C. Morales-Bayetero et al., Revista Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad de Antioquia, No. 111, pp. 9-20, 2024
HC = 3.045+1.595∗A+0.365∗
B + 1.855 ∗ C0.585 + A ∗ B +
2.235 ∗ A ∗ C0.04 ∗ B ∗ C
Figure 19 Estimated response surface for HC analysis (Idling speed and 2,500 rpm)
Figure 20 Standardized Pareto diagram for HC
Table 7 Analysis of significant differences LSD – Power
Cases Average Homogeneous
groups
T5 (A1B15A) 4 43.35 X
T4 (A1B15) 4 43.85 X X
T3 (A1B5A) 4 46.3 X X X
T2 (A1B5) 4 46.9 X X
T1 (A1Diesel) 4 47.77 X
T10 (A2B15A) 4 85.37 X
T9 (A2B15) 4 86.22 X
T8 (A2B5A) 4 87.17 X
T7 (A2B5) 4 87.2 X
T6 (A2Diesel) 4 87.55 X
existence of significant vehicle difference, with MBT-50
being the best values. The results achieved are consistent
with those obtained by [8], which the results that when
using biodiesel mixtures, the opacity level decreases by
up to 96% compared to the use of fossil diesel, due to
the better oxidation of the mixture and the increase in the
temperature of the combustion chamber.
Figure 12 shows the relationship between the opacity
variable depending on the vehicles and the type of
fuel, defining its mathematical model; in addition, it is
evidenced that the two vehicles decrease the opacity as
the percentage of biodiesel increases, demonstrating the
influence of fuels and vehicles as indicated in Figure 13 of
Table 8 Analysis of significant LSD differences - Opacity
Cases Average Homogeneous
groups
T9 (A2B15) 4 0.9 X
T7 (A2B5) 4 1.0 X
T10 (A2B15A) 4 1.1 X
T8 (A2B5A) 4 1.2 X
T6 (A2Diésel) 4 1.62 X
T5 (A1B15A) 4 1.8 X
T3 (A1B5A) 4 1.87 X
T4 (A1B15) 4 1.92 X
T2 (A1B5) 4 2.65 X
T1 (A1Diesel) 4 4.42 X
Pareto.
3.5 Exhaust gas results
Figure 14 shows the relationship between CO2, CO, HC
and NOx emission, with each of the fuels used in the idling
speed and 2,500 rpm states. In the idling speed state, the
MBT-50 vehicle reduced 12.8% of CO2 and 88.2% of CO
when using the B5A mixture, 70% reduction of HC with
B15A, and the best values (minimum) with the use of B5
for NOx. Instead, the F-Ranger achieved a 10% reduction
in CO2 with the B15A mixture; 47.8% CO and 87.5% HC
with B5A, and lower NOx emission with B15A.
At high rpm, the MBT-50 was reduced by 15.5% CO2
and 35.4% CO with mixture B5A, a decrease of 89.6%
in HC with B15A, and lower emission with B5A for NOx.
On the other hand, the F-Ranger vehicle decreased by
26.4% in CO2 emissions with the use of B15A; 15.1% in
CO, and 66.6% in HC with B5A; and best results for NOx
with B5 mixture. The results acquired are consistent with
those obtained by [35], where, when testing biodiesel at
low proportions, it concludes that the CO2, CO and HC
emission parameters vary with engine speed by reducing
their values compared to conventional diesel, in addition,
17
HC = 3.045+1.595∗A+0.365∗
B + 1.855 ∗ C0.585 + A ∗ B +
2.235 ∗ A ∗ C0.04 ∗ B ∗ C
Figure 19 Estimated response surface for HC analysis (Idling speed and 2,500 rpm)
Figure 20 Standardized Pareto diagram for HC
Table 7 Analysis of significant differences LSD – Power
Cases Average Homogeneous
groups
T5 (A1B15A) 4 43.35 X
T4 (A1B15) 4 43.85 X X
T3 (A1B5A) 4 46.3 X X X
T2 (A1B5) 4 46.9 X X
T1 (A1Diesel) 4 47.77 X
T10 (A2B15A) 4 85.37 X
T9 (A2B15) 4 86.22 X
T8 (A2B5A) 4 87.17 X
T7 (A2B5) 4 87.2 X
T6 (A2Diesel) 4 87.55 X
existence of significant vehicle difference, with MBT-50
being the best values. The results achieved are consistent
with those obtained by [8], which the results that when
using biodiesel mixtures, the opacity level decreases by
up to 96% compared to the use of fossil diesel, due to
the better oxidation of the mixture and the increase in the
temperature of the combustion chamber.
Figure 12 shows the relationship between the opacity
variable depending on the vehicles and the type of
fuel, defining its mathematical model; in addition, it is
evidenced that the two vehicles decrease the opacity as
the percentage of biodiesel increases, demonstrating the
influence of fuels and vehicles as indicated in Figure 13 of
Table 8 Analysis of significant LSD differences - Opacity
Cases Average Homogeneous
groups
T9 (A2B15) 4 0.9 X
T7 (A2B5) 4 1.0 X
T10 (A2B15A) 4 1.1 X
T8 (A2B5A) 4 1.2 X
T6 (A2Diésel) 4 1.62 X
T5 (A1B15A) 4 1.8 X
T3 (A1B5A) 4 1.87 X
T4 (A1B15) 4 1.92 X
T2 (A1B5) 4 2.65 X
T1 (A1Diesel) 4 4.42 X
Pareto.
3.5 Exhaust gas results
Figure 14 shows the relationship between CO2, CO, HC
and NOx emission, with each of the fuels used in the idling
speed and 2,500 rpm states. In the idling speed state, the
MBT-50 vehicle reduced 12.8% of CO2 and 88.2% of CO
when using the B5A mixture, 70% reduction of HC with
B15A, and the best values (minimum) with the use of B5
for NOx. Instead, the F-Ranger achieved a 10% reduction
in CO2 with the B15A mixture; 47.8% CO and 87.5% HC
with B5A, and lower NOx emission with B15A.
At high rpm, the MBT-50 was reduced by 15.5% CO2
and 35.4% CO with mixture B5A, a decrease of 89.6%
in HC with B15A, and lower emission with B5A for NOx.
On the other hand, the F-Ranger vehicle decreased by
26.4% in CO2 emissions with the use of B15A; 15.1% in
CO, and 66.6% in HC with B5A; and best results for NOx
with B5 mixture. The results acquired are consistent with
those obtained by [35], where, when testing biodiesel at
low proportions, it concludes that the CO2, CO and HC
emission parameters vary with engine speed by reducing
their values compared to conventional diesel, in addition,
17
C. Morales-Bayetero et al., Revista Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad de Antioquia, No. 111, pp. 9-20, 2024
N Ox = 119.6524.5687 ∗ A +
6.27232 ∗ B66.9313 ∗ C +
0.79375 ∗ A ∗ B + 15.1125 ∗ A ∗
C0.727679 ∗ B20.71875 ∗ B ∗ C
Figure 21 Estimated response surface for NOx analysis (Idling speed 2,500 rpm)
Figure 22 Standardized Pareto diagram for NOx.
a non-significant increase in NOx emissions is obtained,
results that are consistent with the research of [36].
Figure 15 shows the relationship between the emission of
CO2, depending on the vehicles, type of fuel, and speed,
where the minimum values are obtained with the fuel
B15A for low and high rpm, highlighting the influence of
the how regime indicated in Figure 16 of Pareto.
In Figure 17, the ratio of CO emissions according
to independent variables is indicated, defining the
mathematical model that relates them to the type of fuel,
vehicles, and regime. This results in the lowest emission
with the fuel B5A for idling and B15 for 2,500 rpm, with an
average value of 0.14% CO, which highlights the influence
of the regime followed by fuel, as indicated in Figure 18.
Figure 19 shows these emissions of HC in relation to
the type of fuel, vehicles, and regime, in which the best
values are obtained with fuel B15 and B15A in the idling
state and B15A at 2,500 rpm, defining the mathematical
model that relates them and reaching the average value
of 5.04 ppm; highlighting the influence of the regime as
indicated in Figure 20 it Pareto.
Figure 21 represents the ratios of NOx emissions and
depending on the vehicles, fuel system, and speed, defines
its mathematical model, obtaining the best values with the
use of low percentages of biodiesel, with the B5 fuel being
the best results for the two regime states, reaching the
average value of 131.9 ppm, highlighting the influence of
the regime followed by the vehicle, as indicated in Figure
22 it Pareto.
The results indicate that the mixtures with additives
present the best results in the polluting emissions tests,
with significant reductions in CO2, CO, and HC. This
occurs because the additive increases the amount of
oxygen in biodiesel fuel, reducing the exhaust emissions
of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons [37].
The results agree with those obtained in the research
carried out by [38], in which by adding an additive to palm
biodiesel mixtures, reductions in the emission of carbon
monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2) are obtained in
percentages of 14.33% and 53.25%, respectively.
4. Conclusions
After carrying out the mechanical and environmental
tests with the biodiesel blends, the following conclusions
are obtained: Mechanical tests show that the best
mixture is B5 because there is a non-significant decrease,
in maintaining power and torque for the two vehicles
compared to diesel. The results show that an increment
in the percentage of biodiesel in the mixtures decreases
the thermal efficiency of combustion. The opacity results
show a reduction of 59.3% with the use of the B15A mixture
in the MBT-50 vehicle, and 44.8% with the B15 mixture in
the F-Ranger, concluding that the opacity value decreases
as the biodiesel percentage is increased. The exhaust
gas analysis was carried out in two engine speed states,
obtaining reductions in CO2, CO, and HC emissions and
a slight increase in NOx. The results indicate the most
significant decrease in polluting gases (CO2, CO, and
18
N Ox = 119.6524.5687 ∗ A +
6.27232 ∗ B66.9313 ∗ C +
0.79375 ∗ A ∗ B + 15.1125 ∗ A ∗
C0.727679 ∗ B20.71875 ∗ B ∗ C
Figure 21 Estimated response surface for NOx analysis (Idling speed 2,500 rpm)
Figure 22 Standardized Pareto diagram for NOx.
a non-significant increase in NOx emissions is obtained,
results that are consistent with the research of [36].
Figure 15 shows the relationship between the emission of
CO2, depending on the vehicles, type of fuel, and speed,
where the minimum values are obtained with the fuel
B15A for low and high rpm, highlighting the influence of
the how regime indicated in Figure 16 of Pareto.
In Figure 17, the ratio of CO emissions according
to independent variables is indicated, defining the
mathematical model that relates them to the type of fuel,
vehicles, and regime. This results in the lowest emission
with the fuel B5A for idling and B15 for 2,500 rpm, with an
average value of 0.14% CO, which highlights the influence
of the regime followed by fuel, as indicated in Figure 18.
Figure 19 shows these emissions of HC in relation to
the type of fuel, vehicles, and regime, in which the best
values are obtained with fuel B15 and B15A in the idling
state and B15A at 2,500 rpm, defining the mathematical
model that relates them and reaching the average value
of 5.04 ppm; highlighting the influence of the regime as
indicated in Figure 20 it Pareto.
Figure 21 represents the ratios of NOx emissions and
depending on the vehicles, fuel system, and speed, defines
its mathematical model, obtaining the best values with the
use of low percentages of biodiesel, with the B5 fuel being
the best results for the two regime states, reaching the
average value of 131.9 ppm, highlighting the influence of
the regime followed by the vehicle, as indicated in Figure
22 it Pareto.
The results indicate that the mixtures with additives
present the best results in the polluting emissions tests,
with significant reductions in CO2, CO, and HC. This
occurs because the additive increases the amount of
oxygen in biodiesel fuel, reducing the exhaust emissions
of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons [37].
The results agree with those obtained in the research
carried out by [38], in which by adding an additive to palm
biodiesel mixtures, reductions in the emission of carbon
monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2) are obtained in
percentages of 14.33% and 53.25%, respectively.
4. Conclusions
After carrying out the mechanical and environmental
tests with the biodiesel blends, the following conclusions
are obtained: Mechanical tests show that the best
mixture is B5 because there is a non-significant decrease,
in maintaining power and torque for the two vehicles
compared to diesel. The results show that an increment
in the percentage of biodiesel in the mixtures decreases
the thermal efficiency of combustion. The opacity results
show a reduction of 59.3% with the use of the B15A mixture
in the MBT-50 vehicle, and 44.8% with the B15 mixture in
the F-Ranger, concluding that the opacity value decreases
as the biodiesel percentage is increased. The exhaust
gas analysis was carried out in two engine speed states,
obtaining reductions in CO2, CO, and HC emissions and
a slight increase in NOx. The results indicate the most
significant decrease in polluting gases (CO2, CO, and
18
C. Morales-Bayetero et al., Revista Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad de Antioquia, No. 111, pp. 9-20, 2024
HC) with the use of additives in biodiesel mixtures for
both states (idle and 2500 rpm), while NOx emissions rise
slightly as the concentration of biodiesel increases.
5. Declaration of competing interest
We declare that we have no significant competing interests,
including financial or non-financial, professional, or
personal interests interfering with the full and objective
presentation of the work described in this manuscript.
6. Acknowledments
The authors thank the Institutions of Higher Education:
SEK International University, Technical University
of the North, and the State University of southern
Manabí, Ecuador, for the assistance provided during the
experimental tests.
7. Funding
This work was supported by the SEK International
University – Ecuador and the Technical University of the
North.
8. Author contributions
Edilberto Antonio Llanes-Cedeño: Development of the
experimental design César Fabricio Morales-Bayetero:
Experimental development Carlos Mafla-Yépez:
Experimental development Alberto Rodríguez-Rodríguez:
Argumentation of the problem and methodological design
of the research
9. Data availability statement
The authors confirm that the data supporting the findings
of this study are available within the article [and/or] its
supplementary materials.
References
[1] CO2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion, 1st ed., International Energy
Agency, 2017.
[2] Transmission Systems for Communications, 3rd ed., Western Elect.
Co., Winston-Salem, NC, 1985.
[3] S. T. Keera, S. M. E. Sabagh, and A. R. Taman, “Castor oil biodiesel
production and optimization,” Egyptian Journal of Petroleum, vol. 27,
no. 4, Feb. 22, 2015. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ejpe.2018.02.007
[4] G. Goga, B. Singh-Chauhan, S. Kumar-Mahla, and H. Muk-Cho,
“Performance and emission characteristics of diesel engine fueled
with rice bran biodiesel and n-butanol,” Energy Reports, vol. 5, Dec.
10, 2018. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2018.12.
002
[5] Erdiwansyah, R. Mamat, M. S. M. Sani, F. Khoerunnisa, R. E.
Sardjono, and et al., “Effects of diesel-biodiesel blends in
diesel engine single cylinder on the emission characteristic,”
in UTP-UMP-VIT Symposium on Energy Systems (SES 2018), 2018, pp.
1–6.
[6] S. Semwal, A. K. Arora, R. P. Badoni, and D. K. Tuli, “Biodiesel
production using heterogeneous catalysts,” Bioresource Technology,
vol. 102, no. 3, Oct. 18, 2010. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.biortech.2010.10.080
[7] S. Rajkumar and J. Thangaraja, “Effect of biodiesel, biodiesel binary
blends, hydrogenated biodiesel and injection parameters on nox
and soot emissions in a turbocharged diesel engine,” Fuel, vol.
240, Nov. 27, 2018. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
fuel.2018.11.141
[8] C. N. Mafla-Yépez, R. Imbaquingo-Navarrete, J. Melo-Obando,
I. Benavides-Ceballos, and E. Hernández-Rueda, “Quantification
of opacity in electronic motors diesel using diesel and biodiesel,”
Ingenius Revista de Ciencia y Tecnología, no. 19, Jan-Jun. 2018.
[Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.17163/ings.n19.2018.10
[9] J. M. Amarís, D. A. Manrique, and J. E. Jaramillo, “Biocombustibles
líquidos en colombia y su impacto en motores de combustión
interna. una revisión,” Revista fuentes: el Reventón energético,
vol. 13, no. 2, Jul-Dec. 2015. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.
18273/revfue.v13n2-2015003
[10] H. Chen, S. Jin, Shuai, J. Xin, and Wang, “Study on
combustion characteristics and pm emission of diesel engines
using ester–ethanol–diesel blended fuels,” Proceedings of the
Combustion Institute, vol. 31, no. 192, Aug. 23, 2006. [Online].
Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proci.2006.07.130
[11] S. Senthilkumar, G. Sivakumar, and S. Manoharan, “Revis
investigation of palm methyl-ester bio-diesel with additive on
performance and emission characteristics of a diesel engine under
8-mode testing cycle,” Engineering Journal, vol. 54, no. 3, Mar. 2015.
[Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2015.03.019
[12] K. A. Abed, M. S. Gad, A. K. El-Morsi, M. M. Sayed, and
S. Abu-Elyazeed, “Effect of biodiesel fuels on diesel engine
emissions,” Egyptian Journal of Petroleum, vol. 28, no. 2, Mar. 04,
2019. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpe.2019.03.001
[13] P. Tamilselvan, N. Nallusamy, and S. Rajkumar, “A comprehensive
review on performance, combustion and emission characteristics
of biodiesel fuelled diesel engines,” Renewable and Sustainable
Energy Reviews, vol. 79, May. 20, 2017. [Online]. Available: https:
//doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.176
[14] J. Xue, T. E. Grift, and A. C. Hansen, “Effect of biodiesel on
engine performances and emissions,” Renewable and Sustainable
Energy Reviews, vol. 15, no. 2, Nov. 09, 2010. [Online]. Available:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2010.11.016
[15] J. C. Rocha-Hoyos, E. A. Llanes-Cedeño, S. F. Celi-Ortega, and
D. C. Peralta-Zurita, “Efecto de la adición de biodiésel en el
rendimiento y la opacidad de un motor diésel,” Información
tecnológica, vol. 30, no. 3, Jun. 2019. [Online]. Available: http:
//dx.doi.org/10.4067/S0718-07642019000300137
[16] S. A. Basha and K. Raja-Gopal, “A review of the effects of catalyst
and additive on biodiesel production, performance, combustion
and emission characteristics,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews, vol. 16, no. 1, Aug. 30, 2011. [Online]. Available: https:
//doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2011.08.036
[17] A. J. Salas, “Aditivos para combustible diesel como parte del
mantenimiento preventivo,” in congreso peruano de mantenimiento
APEMAN, Chico, Lima, 1995, pp. 69–76.
[18] S. Braun, L. Gorenstin-Appel, and M. Schmal, “A poluição
gerada por máquinas de combustão interna movidas à diesel
- a questão dos particulados. estratégias atuais para a
redução e controle das emissões e tendências futuras,”
Divulgação, vol. 27, no. 3, Jun. 2004. [Online]. Available:
19
HC) with the use of additives in biodiesel mixtures for
both states (idle and 2500 rpm), while NOx emissions rise
slightly as the concentration of biodiesel increases.
5. Declaration of competing interest
We declare that we have no significant competing interests,
including financial or non-financial, professional, or
personal interests interfering with the full and objective
presentation of the work described in this manuscript.
6. Acknowledments
The authors thank the Institutions of Higher Education:
SEK International University, Technical University
of the North, and the State University of southern
Manabí, Ecuador, for the assistance provided during the
experimental tests.
7. Funding
This work was supported by the SEK International
University – Ecuador and the Technical University of the
North.
8. Author contributions
Edilberto Antonio Llanes-Cedeño: Development of the
experimental design César Fabricio Morales-Bayetero:
Experimental development Carlos Mafla-Yépez:
Experimental development Alberto Rodríguez-Rodríguez:
Argumentation of the problem and methodological design
of the research
9. Data availability statement
The authors confirm that the data supporting the findings
of this study are available within the article [and/or] its
supplementary materials.
References
[1] CO2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion, 1st ed., International Energy
Agency, 2017.
[2] Transmission Systems for Communications, 3rd ed., Western Elect.
Co., Winston-Salem, NC, 1985.
[3] S. T. Keera, S. M. E. Sabagh, and A. R. Taman, “Castor oil biodiesel
production and optimization,” Egyptian Journal of Petroleum, vol. 27,
no. 4, Feb. 22, 2015. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ejpe.2018.02.007
[4] G. Goga, B. Singh-Chauhan, S. Kumar-Mahla, and H. Muk-Cho,
“Performance and emission characteristics of diesel engine fueled
with rice bran biodiesel and n-butanol,” Energy Reports, vol. 5, Dec.
10, 2018. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2018.12.
002
[5] Erdiwansyah, R. Mamat, M. S. M. Sani, F. Khoerunnisa, R. E.
Sardjono, and et al., “Effects of diesel-biodiesel blends in
diesel engine single cylinder on the emission characteristic,”
in UTP-UMP-VIT Symposium on Energy Systems (SES 2018), 2018, pp.
1–6.
[6] S. Semwal, A. K. Arora, R. P. Badoni, and D. K. Tuli, “Biodiesel
production using heterogeneous catalysts,” Bioresource Technology,
vol. 102, no. 3, Oct. 18, 2010. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.biortech.2010.10.080
[7] S. Rajkumar and J. Thangaraja, “Effect of biodiesel, biodiesel binary
blends, hydrogenated biodiesel and injection parameters on nox
and soot emissions in a turbocharged diesel engine,” Fuel, vol.
240, Nov. 27, 2018. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
fuel.2018.11.141
[8] C. N. Mafla-Yépez, R. Imbaquingo-Navarrete, J. Melo-Obando,
I. Benavides-Ceballos, and E. Hernández-Rueda, “Quantification
of opacity in electronic motors diesel using diesel and biodiesel,”
Ingenius Revista de Ciencia y Tecnología, no. 19, Jan-Jun. 2018.
[Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.17163/ings.n19.2018.10
[9] J. M. Amarís, D. A. Manrique, and J. E. Jaramillo, “Biocombustibles
líquidos en colombia y su impacto en motores de combustión
interna. una revisión,” Revista fuentes: el Reventón energético,
vol. 13, no. 2, Jul-Dec. 2015. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.
18273/revfue.v13n2-2015003
[10] H. Chen, S. Jin, Shuai, J. Xin, and Wang, “Study on
combustion characteristics and pm emission of diesel engines
using ester–ethanol–diesel blended fuels,” Proceedings of the
Combustion Institute, vol. 31, no. 192, Aug. 23, 2006. [Online].
Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proci.2006.07.130
[11] S. Senthilkumar, G. Sivakumar, and S. Manoharan, “Revis
investigation of palm methyl-ester bio-diesel with additive on
performance and emission characteristics of a diesel engine under
8-mode testing cycle,” Engineering Journal, vol. 54, no. 3, Mar. 2015.
[Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2015.03.019
[12] K. A. Abed, M. S. Gad, A. K. El-Morsi, M. M. Sayed, and
S. Abu-Elyazeed, “Effect of biodiesel fuels on diesel engine
emissions,” Egyptian Journal of Petroleum, vol. 28, no. 2, Mar. 04,
2019. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpe.2019.03.001
[13] P. Tamilselvan, N. Nallusamy, and S. Rajkumar, “A comprehensive
review on performance, combustion and emission characteristics
of biodiesel fuelled diesel engines,” Renewable and Sustainable
Energy Reviews, vol. 79, May. 20, 2017. [Online]. Available: https:
//doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.176
[14] J. Xue, T. E. Grift, and A. C. Hansen, “Effect of biodiesel on
engine performances and emissions,” Renewable and Sustainable
Energy Reviews, vol. 15, no. 2, Nov. 09, 2010. [Online]. Available:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2010.11.016
[15] J. C. Rocha-Hoyos, E. A. Llanes-Cedeño, S. F. Celi-Ortega, and
D. C. Peralta-Zurita, “Efecto de la adición de biodiésel en el
rendimiento y la opacidad de un motor diésel,” Información
tecnológica, vol. 30, no. 3, Jun. 2019. [Online]. Available: http:
//dx.doi.org/10.4067/S0718-07642019000300137
[16] S. A. Basha and K. Raja-Gopal, “A review of the effects of catalyst
and additive on biodiesel production, performance, combustion
and emission characteristics,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews, vol. 16, no. 1, Aug. 30, 2011. [Online]. Available: https:
//doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2011.08.036
[17] A. J. Salas, “Aditivos para combustible diesel como parte del
mantenimiento preventivo,” in congreso peruano de mantenimiento
APEMAN, Chico, Lima, 1995, pp. 69–76.
[18] S. Braun, L. Gorenstin-Appel, and M. Schmal, “A poluição
gerada por máquinas de combustão interna movidas à diesel
- a questão dos particulados. estratégias atuais para a
redução e controle das emissões e tendências futuras,”
Divulgação, vol. 27, no. 3, Jun. 2004. [Online]. Available:
19
C. Morales-Bayetero et al., Revista Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad de Antioquia, No. 111, pp. 9-20, 2024
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in diesel-biodiesel fuel blends: A comprehensive review on
stability, engine performance and emission characteristics,” Energy
Conversion and Management, vol. 178, Oct. 08, 2018. [Online].
Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2018.10.019
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performances and emissions of emulsified diesel and biodiesel
fueled stationary ci engine: A comprehensive review,” Renewable
and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 59, Jan. 13, 2016. [Online].
Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.01.051
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and et al., “Impact of additives on combustion, performance and
exhaust emission of biodiesel fueled direct injection diesel engine,”
Materials Today: Proceedings, vol. 62, no. 4, 2022. [Online]. Available:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2022.04.114
[22] M. E. M. Soudagar, N. N. Nik-Ghazali, M. Abul-Kalam,
I. A. Badruddin, N. R. Banapurmath, and et al., “The
effect of nano-additives in diesel-biodiesel fuel blends: A
comprehensive review on stability, engine performance and
emission characteristics,” Energy Conversion and Management,
vol. 78, Oct. 08, 2008. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
enconman.2018.10.019
[23] G. R. Kannan, R. Karvembu, and R. Anand, “Effect of metal based
additive on performance emission and combustion characteristics
of diesel engine fuelled with biodiesel,” Applied Energy, vol. 88,
no. 11, Apr. 15, 2011. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
apenergy.2011.04.043
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impacts on combustion, performance and emissions of biodiesel
by using additives in direct injection diesel engine,” Alexandria
Engineering Journal, vol. 57, no. 1, Dec. 15, 2016. [Online]. Available:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2016.12.016
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