Indigenous zoom: Impact of the Implementation of
the School Feeding Program for Indigenous Peoples
in Colombia on Enrollment
Carol Nataly Prada Camacho
Lecturas de Economía - No. 101. Medellín, enero-junio 2024
the School Feeding Program for Indigenous Peoples
in Colombia on Enrollment
Carol Nataly Prada Camacho
Lecturas de Economía - No. 101. Medellín, enero-junio 2024
Lecturas de Economía, 101 (enero-junio 2024), pp. 47-70Página 1 de 1CROSSMARK_logo_3_Test
25/06/2020file:///D:/Paty/LecturasEconomia/LEvol93_2020/LEVol93Abr26_2020/ART_340990/CR...
Carol Nataly Prada Camacho
Indigenous zoom: Impact of the Implementation of the School Feeding Program
for Indigenous Peoples in Colombia on Enrollment
Abstract:Considering the socioeconomic and cultural heterogeneity of the Colombian population, which
leads to lower access and permanence in the educational system of indigenous children and youth, the
National Government has developed a feeding program with a differential approach for these students.
Although the World Bank (2022) developed an analysis of the implementation of the School Feeding
Program for Indigenous Peoples (PAEPI – because of the initials in Spanish –), its impact has not
yet been evaluated. Hence, this article seeks to fill this gap by establishing whether the implementation
of this program had a positive impact on the enrollment of indigenous students. For this purpose, a
Difference-in-Differences model was estimated with data from 24 departments during the period 2017-
2021. Although it was found that the impact of the PAEPI on indigenous enrollment is not statistically
significant, the article provides evidence of the potential effect that this policy can have, since it showed a
positive impact on indigenous enrollment. Thus, these findings support the idea that adopting differential
treatments can enhance the impact of public policies.
Keywords: PAE, PAEPI, public policy, differential treatment, indigenous enrollment, access to
education.
JEL Classification: I24, J15, I38.
Zoom indígena: Impacto sobre la matrícula de la implementación del Programa
de Alimentación Escolar para Pueblos Indígenas en Colombia
Resumen: Considerando la heterogeneidad socioeconómica y cultural de la población colombiana —la
cual conlleva a un menor acceso y permanencia en el sistema educativo de los niños, niñas y adolescentes
indígenas—, el Gobierno Nacional ha desarrollado un programa de alimentación con enfoque diferencial
para estos estudiantes. Aunque el Banco Mundial (2022) desarrolló un análisis de la implementación
del Programa de Alimentación Escolar para Pueblos Indígenas (PAEPI), aún no se ha evaluado su
impacto. Por tanto, este artículo busca establecer si la implementación del programa tuvo un impacto
positivo en la matrícula de estudiantes indígenas. Para ello, fue estimado un modelo de diferencias en
diferencias con datos de 24 departamentos durante el periodo 2017-2021. Aunque se encontró que
el impacto del PAEPI en la matrícula de estudiantes indígenas no es estadísticamente significativo, el
artículo proporciona evidencia del efecto potencial que puede tener esta política, dado que se observó un
impacto positivo en este indicador. En consecuencia, este artículo respalda la adopción de tratamientos
diferenciales para potenciar el impacto de las políticas públicas.
Palabras clave: PAE, PAEPI, política pública, tratamiento diferencial, matrícula indígena, acceso
a la educación.
http://doi.org/10.17533/udea.le.n101a353975
Este artículo y sus anexos se distribuyen por la revista Lecturas de Economía bajo los términos de la Licencia Creative
Commons Atribución-NoComercial-CompartirIgual 4.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/
25/06/2020file:///D:/Paty/LecturasEconomia/LEvol93_2020/LEVol93Abr26_2020/ART_340990/CR...
Carol Nataly Prada Camacho
Indigenous zoom: Impact of the Implementation of the School Feeding Program
for Indigenous Peoples in Colombia on Enrollment
Abstract:Considering the socioeconomic and cultural heterogeneity of the Colombian population, which
leads to lower access and permanence in the educational system of indigenous children and youth, the
National Government has developed a feeding program with a differential approach for these students.
Although the World Bank (2022) developed an analysis of the implementation of the School Feeding
Program for Indigenous Peoples (PAEPI – because of the initials in Spanish –), its impact has not
yet been evaluated. Hence, this article seeks to fill this gap by establishing whether the implementation
of this program had a positive impact on the enrollment of indigenous students. For this purpose, a
Difference-in-Differences model was estimated with data from 24 departments during the period 2017-
2021. Although it was found that the impact of the PAEPI on indigenous enrollment is not statistically
significant, the article provides evidence of the potential effect that this policy can have, since it showed a
positive impact on indigenous enrollment. Thus, these findings support the idea that adopting differential
treatments can enhance the impact of public policies.
Keywords: PAE, PAEPI, public policy, differential treatment, indigenous enrollment, access to
education.
JEL Classification: I24, J15, I38.
Zoom indígena: Impacto sobre la matrícula de la implementación del Programa
de Alimentación Escolar para Pueblos Indígenas en Colombia
Resumen: Considerando la heterogeneidad socioeconómica y cultural de la población colombiana —la
cual conlleva a un menor acceso y permanencia en el sistema educativo de los niños, niñas y adolescentes
indígenas—, el Gobierno Nacional ha desarrollado un programa de alimentación con enfoque diferencial
para estos estudiantes. Aunque el Banco Mundial (2022) desarrolló un análisis de la implementación
del Programa de Alimentación Escolar para Pueblos Indígenas (PAEPI), aún no se ha evaluado su
impacto. Por tanto, este artículo busca establecer si la implementación del programa tuvo un impacto
positivo en la matrícula de estudiantes indígenas. Para ello, fue estimado un modelo de diferencias en
diferencias con datos de 24 departamentos durante el periodo 2017-2021. Aunque se encontró que
el impacto del PAEPI en la matrícula de estudiantes indígenas no es estadísticamente significativo, el
artículo proporciona evidencia del efecto potencial que puede tener esta política, dado que se observó un
impacto positivo en este indicador. En consecuencia, este artículo respalda la adopción de tratamientos
diferenciales para potenciar el impacto de las políticas públicas.
Palabras clave: PAE, PAEPI, política pública, tratamiento diferencial, matrícula indígena, acceso
a la educación.
http://doi.org/10.17533/udea.le.n101a353975
Este artículo y sus anexos se distribuyen por la revista Lecturas de Economía bajo los términos de la Licencia Creative
Commons Atribución-NoComercial-CompartirIgual 4.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/
Zoom indigène: Impact sur la scolarisation de la mise en ceuvre du programme
d’alimentation scolaire pour les peuples indigènes en Colombie
Résumé: Considérant l’hétérogénéité socio-économique et culturelle de la population colombienne, qui
entraîne un accès et une permanence moindres dans le système éducatif pour les enfants et les adolescents
autochtones ; le gouvernement national a élaboré un programme d’alimentation avec une approche dif-
férentielle pour ces élèves. Bien que la Banque mondiale (2022) ait développé une analyse de la mise
en œuvre du Programme d’alimentation scolaire pour les peuples autochtones (PAEPI), son impact n’a
pas encore été évalué. Par conséquent, ce document vise à établir si la mise en œuvre de ce programme a
eu un impact positif sur la scolarisation des étudiants autochtones. Pour cela, un modèle de différences
dans les différences a été estimé avec les données de 24 départements sur la période 2017-2021. Bien
qu’il ait été constaté que l’impact du PAEPI sur la scolarisation des étudiants autochtones n’est pas
statistiquement significatif, l’étude apporte des preuves de l’effet potentiel que peut avoir cette politique,
puisqu’un impact positif a été observé sur cet indicateur. Par conséquent, cette étude soutient l’adoption
de traitements différenciés pour renforcer l’impact des politiques publiques.
Mots clés: PAE, PAEPI, politiques publiques, traitement différencié, scolarisation des autochtones,
accès à l’éducation.
Cómo citar / How to cite this item:
Prada-Camacho, N. (2024). Indigenous zoom: Impact of the Implementation of the
School Feeding Program for Indigenous Peoples in Colombia on Enrollment. Lecturas
de Economía, 101, 47-70. http://doi.org/10.17533/udea.le.n101a353975
d’alimentation scolaire pour les peuples indigènes en Colombie
Résumé: Considérant l’hétérogénéité socio-économique et culturelle de la population colombienne, qui
entraîne un accès et une permanence moindres dans le système éducatif pour les enfants et les adolescents
autochtones ; le gouvernement national a élaboré un programme d’alimentation avec une approche dif-
férentielle pour ces élèves. Bien que la Banque mondiale (2022) ait développé une analyse de la mise
en œuvre du Programme d’alimentation scolaire pour les peuples autochtones (PAEPI), son impact n’a
pas encore été évalué. Par conséquent, ce document vise à établir si la mise en œuvre de ce programme a
eu un impact positif sur la scolarisation des étudiants autochtones. Pour cela, un modèle de différences
dans les différences a été estimé avec les données de 24 départements sur la période 2017-2021. Bien
qu’il ait été constaté que l’impact du PAEPI sur la scolarisation des étudiants autochtones n’est pas
statistiquement significatif, l’étude apporte des preuves de l’effet potentiel que peut avoir cette politique,
puisqu’un impact positif a été observé sur cet indicateur. Par conséquent, cette étude soutient l’adoption
de traitements différenciés pour renforcer l’impact des politiques publiques.
Mots clés: PAE, PAEPI, politiques publiques, traitement différencié, scolarisation des autochtones,
accès à l’éducation.
Cómo citar / How to cite this item:
Prada-Camacho, N. (2024). Indigenous zoom: Impact of the Implementation of the
School Feeding Program for Indigenous Peoples in Colombia on Enrollment. Lecturas
de Economía, 101, 47-70. http://doi.org/10.17533/udea.le.n101a353975
Indigenous zoom: Impact of the Implementation of the School
Feeding Program for Indigenous Peoples in Colombia on
Enrollment
Carol Nataly Prada Camacho a
Introduction. –I. Access and Permanence in the Colombian Education System. –II.
School Feeding Program vs. School Feeding Program for Indigenous Peoples. –III.
Trends in Indigenous Enrollment. –IV. Data. –V. Empirical Strategy. –VI. Results.
–Conclusions. –Appendix. –Ethics Statement. –References.
Original manuscript received on 16 June 2023; final version accepted on 31 September 2023
Introduction
The nutritional attention to children and youngsters enrolled in public
education in Colombia started to play a main role in educational policy since
2006–although it started in 1941–. As it fosters the access with permanence
in the education system, whereas it promotes their learning abilities.
The School Feeding Program (Programa de Alimentación Escolar (PAE)
–because of the initials in Spanish–) has had a positive impact on absenteeism,
desertion and student repetition. During the period 2012-2019, students re-
ceiving food supplements were 32.5% and 39.2% less likely to be absent and
to desert the education system (respectively) than those not receiving them,
while the student repetition decreased by 13.7% (Ministerio de Educación
Nacional & UApA, 2022).
Nevertheless, according to the World Bank (2019) the people’s plurality
in Colombia hinders the operation of the PAE, that is the reason why its im-
plementation should be adapted to the context and population (World Bank,
2019, as cited in Ministerio de Educación Nacional & UApA, 2022). Differ-
ential treatments identify the diversity of conceptions, feelings, and thoughts
a Carol Nataly Prada Camacho: Economist from the Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Facul-
tad de Ciencias Económicas, Bogotá, Colombia. E-mail: cprada@unal.edu.co
http://orcid.org/0009-0009-0542-9416
Feeding Program for Indigenous Peoples in Colombia on
Enrollment
Carol Nataly Prada Camacho a
Introduction. –I. Access and Permanence in the Colombian Education System. –II.
School Feeding Program vs. School Feeding Program for Indigenous Peoples. –III.
Trends in Indigenous Enrollment. –IV. Data. –V. Empirical Strategy. –VI. Results.
–Conclusions. –Appendix. –Ethics Statement. –References.
Original manuscript received on 16 June 2023; final version accepted on 31 September 2023
Introduction
The nutritional attention to children and youngsters enrolled in public
education in Colombia started to play a main role in educational policy since
2006–although it started in 1941–. As it fosters the access with permanence
in the education system, whereas it promotes their learning abilities.
The School Feeding Program (Programa de Alimentación Escolar (PAE)
–because of the initials in Spanish–) has had a positive impact on absenteeism,
desertion and student repetition. During the period 2012-2019, students re-
ceiving food supplements were 32.5% and 39.2% less likely to be absent and
to desert the education system (respectively) than those not receiving them,
while the student repetition decreased by 13.7% (Ministerio de Educación
Nacional & UApA, 2022).
Nevertheless, according to the World Bank (2019) the people’s plurality
in Colombia hinders the operation of the PAE, that is the reason why its im-
plementation should be adapted to the context and population (World Bank,
2019, as cited in Ministerio de Educación Nacional & UApA, 2022). Differ-
ential treatments identify the diversity of conceptions, feelings, and thoughts
a Carol Nataly Prada Camacho: Economist from the Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Facul-
tad de Ciencias Económicas, Bogotá, Colombia. E-mail: cprada@unal.edu.co
http://orcid.org/0009-0009-0542-9416
Prada Camacho, C. N.: Indigenous zoom: Impact of the Implementation of the School...
of people and the disproportionate and differentiated impact of policies on
them to respond to their needs, protecting and restoring their rights (Bolaños
& Flisi, 2017). Therefore, promoting the implementation of an educational
policy with a differential approach broadens its impact, since it is based on
the recognition of the particularities of each population group.
Then, the National Government implemented a program with a differen-
tial approach for indigenous communities -through Resolución 18858 de 2018-
with the objective of contributing to their access with permanence to education.
The above, through the delivery of a food supplement that helps to recover and
strengthen cultural feeding processes (Resolución 18858 de 2018).
Thus, the main objective of this document is to determine if the enroll-
ment of indigenous children has raised due to the implementation of the
School Feeding Program for Indigenous Peoples (Programa de Alimentación
Escolar para Pueblos Indígenas (PAEPI) –because of the initials in Spanish–).
To fulfill this goal, a Difference-in-Differences model was estimated, show-
ing that the PAEPI’s implementation has the potential to encourage the access
with permanence of indigenous children and youth.
Thereby, this document is divided as follows. In section I, the educa-
tional context is introduced. Section II outlines the characteristics of the
PAEPI. The data and empirical strategy are presented in sections III and IV
respectively. Section V exhibits the results, and finally, section VI presents
the conclusions.
I. Access and Permanence in the Colombian Education System
During the period 2002-2013, the net enrollment rate in each level of ed-
ucation increased. Based on the OECD (2016), the proportion of children
enrolled in preschool education rose from 36% to 45%, in secondary educa-
tion from 59% to 70% and in middle education from 30% to 41%.
However, there are many obstacles which impede the access to education
in Colombia. There is a lack of educational opportunities, in addition to is-
sues such as poverty, conflict and violence (OECD, 2016). In consequence,
51
of people and the disproportionate and differentiated impact of policies on
them to respond to their needs, protecting and restoring their rights (Bolaños
& Flisi, 2017). Therefore, promoting the implementation of an educational
policy with a differential approach broadens its impact, since it is based on
the recognition of the particularities of each population group.
Then, the National Government implemented a program with a differen-
tial approach for indigenous communities -through Resolución 18858 de 2018-
with the objective of contributing to their access with permanence to education.
The above, through the delivery of a food supplement that helps to recover and
strengthen cultural feeding processes (Resolución 18858 de 2018).
Thus, the main objective of this document is to determine if the enroll-
ment of indigenous children has raised due to the implementation of the
School Feeding Program for Indigenous Peoples (Programa de Alimentación
Escolar para Pueblos Indígenas (PAEPI) –because of the initials in Spanish–).
To fulfill this goal, a Difference-in-Differences model was estimated, show-
ing that the PAEPI’s implementation has the potential to encourage the access
with permanence of indigenous children and youth.
Thereby, this document is divided as follows. In section I, the educa-
tional context is introduced. Section II outlines the characteristics of the
PAEPI. The data and empirical strategy are presented in sections III and IV
respectively. Section V exhibits the results, and finally, section VI presents
the conclusions.
I. Access and Permanence in the Colombian Education System
During the period 2002-2013, the net enrollment rate in each level of ed-
ucation increased. Based on the OECD (2016), the proportion of children
enrolled in preschool education rose from 36% to 45%, in secondary educa-
tion from 59% to 70% and in middle education from 30% to 41%.
However, there are many obstacles which impede the access to education
in Colombia. There is a lack of educational opportunities, in addition to is-
sues such as poverty, conflict and violence (OECD, 2016). In consequence,
51
52
although the National Government has implemented a set of policies to im-
prove the access to education, there are many challenges in terms of coverage.
According to Fernández et al. (2021), the coverage in pre-school edu-
cation for kids of 3, 4 and 5 years old is of 53%, 58% and 62% respectively,
while in most OECD countries they are between 90% and 100%. In addition,
the net coverage for secondary and middle education was of 77.47% in 2018,
which is below the OECD and Latin America average.
Furthermore, the Colombian education system does not guarantee the
completion of the educational cycle. Approximately one in five students does
not continue studying after primary school (OECD, CAF, ECLAC, 2014); as
secondary education has a higher annual dropout rate (4.5%), compared to
primary (3.2%) and middle education (3.1%) (Ministerio de Educación Na-
cional, 2015). Even if school life expectancy increased by 2 years during the
period 2000-2010, only children between 7 and 13 years old are close to have
universal access to education, while most OECD countries ensure it for chil-
dren between 5 and 14 years (OECD, 2016).
This problematic is even more acute in rural areas, especially in middle
education. As reported by Fernández et al. (2021), the impact of policies
such as free middle education has not been as expected in rural areas, since
coverage at this educational level has been reduced to 26.4%. As well, in rural
areas, there is a structural deficit of supply and non-attendance increases to
about half of young people in this level of education (Forero, 2022).
Moreover, Colombia has one of the highest repetition rates among the
countries participating in the OECD’s Programme for International Student
Assessment. “In 2012, 41% of 15 years old had repeated at least one grade,
compared to the OECD average of 12%” (OECD, 2013, as quoted in OECD,
2016, p. 151). The above increases the risk of desertion, as the opportunity
cost of remaining in the educational system is higher (OECD, 2016).
A. Indigenous Population and Educational Gaps
According to the census elaborated in 2018, the indigenous population
in Colombia consists of 1.905.617 people, i.e., around 3.95% of Colombia’s
Lecturas de Economía -Lect. Econ. - No. 101. Medellín, enero-junio 2024
although the National Government has implemented a set of policies to im-
prove the access to education, there are many challenges in terms of coverage.
According to Fernández et al. (2021), the coverage in pre-school edu-
cation for kids of 3, 4 and 5 years old is of 53%, 58% and 62% respectively,
while in most OECD countries they are between 90% and 100%. In addition,
the net coverage for secondary and middle education was of 77.47% in 2018,
which is below the OECD and Latin America average.
Furthermore, the Colombian education system does not guarantee the
completion of the educational cycle. Approximately one in five students does
not continue studying after primary school (OECD, CAF, ECLAC, 2014); as
secondary education has a higher annual dropout rate (4.5%), compared to
primary (3.2%) and middle education (3.1%) (Ministerio de Educación Na-
cional, 2015). Even if school life expectancy increased by 2 years during the
period 2000-2010, only children between 7 and 13 years old are close to have
universal access to education, while most OECD countries ensure it for chil-
dren between 5 and 14 years (OECD, 2016).
This problematic is even more acute in rural areas, especially in middle
education. As reported by Fernández et al. (2021), the impact of policies
such as free middle education has not been as expected in rural areas, since
coverage at this educational level has been reduced to 26.4%. As well, in rural
areas, there is a structural deficit of supply and non-attendance increases to
about half of young people in this level of education (Forero, 2022).
Moreover, Colombia has one of the highest repetition rates among the
countries participating in the OECD’s Programme for International Student
Assessment. “In 2012, 41% of 15 years old had repeated at least one grade,
compared to the OECD average of 12%” (OECD, 2013, as quoted in OECD,
2016, p. 151). The above increases the risk of desertion, as the opportunity
cost of remaining in the educational system is higher (OECD, 2016).
A. Indigenous Population and Educational Gaps
According to the census elaborated in 2018, the indigenous population
in Colombia consists of 1.905.617 people, i.e., around 3.95% of Colombia’s
Lecturas de Economía -Lect. Econ. - No. 101. Medellín, enero-junio 2024
Prada Camacho, C. N.: Indigenous zoom: Impact of the Implementation of the School...
population. As it can be seen in Figure 1, it is mainly concentrated in La Gua-
jira, Cauca, Nariño and Córdoba, with 20.7%, 16.7%, 10.8% and 10.6% of
the total indigenous population in the country respectively. However, the de-
partments with majority indigenous population are Vaupés, Guainía, Vichada
and Amazonas, in which 81.7%, 74.9%, 58.7% and 57.7% of their population
is recognized as indigene.
Figure 1. Geographic distribution of indigenous population in Colombia (% of the total)
Source: Own elaboration based on DANE (2019).
As reported by Delgado (2014), most of the indigenous people live in
rural areas, where the population faces more adverse socioeconomic condi-
tions compared with urban dwellers. People in rural areas have higher rates
of poverty, malnutrition, teenage pregnancy and violence, also they tend to
have less access to educational opportunities and less academic achievements
(OECD, 2016).
53
population. As it can be seen in Figure 1, it is mainly concentrated in La Gua-
jira, Cauca, Nariño and Córdoba, with 20.7%, 16.7%, 10.8% and 10.6% of
the total indigenous population in the country respectively. However, the de-
partments with majority indigenous population are Vaupés, Guainía, Vichada
and Amazonas, in which 81.7%, 74.9%, 58.7% and 57.7% of their population
is recognized as indigene.
Figure 1. Geographic distribution of indigenous population in Colombia (% of the total)
Source: Own elaboration based on DANE (2019).
As reported by Delgado (2014), most of the indigenous people live in
rural areas, where the population faces more adverse socioeconomic condi-
tions compared with urban dwellers. People in rural areas have higher rates
of poverty, malnutrition, teenage pregnancy and violence, also they tend to
have less access to educational opportunities and less academic achievements
(OECD, 2016).
53
54
In consequence, the population that recognizes itself as belonging to an
ethnic group is at a clear disadvantage. Although “flexible educational models,
ethnic education, school meals and transportation have contributed to reach-
ing disadvantaged groups; socioeconomic background, geographic location,
ethnicity and gender still largely condition the educational opportunities of
children” (OECD, 2016, p. 34). Therefore, according to González (2016),
serious gaps persist that disadvantage the rural population and, especially, in-
digenous and afro-Colombian children.
II. Trends in Indigenous Enrollment
As it can be seen in Figure 2, there is a rising trend in the indigenous
enrollment during the period 2011-2017. However, this trend is not followed
by the departments that have implemented the PAEPI –from now on the
control group–, which only shows a growing trend between 2014 and 2017,
and during the rest of the period shows increases followed by declines in the
level of enrollment.
Likewise, during the period 2010-2021 between 79.2% and 82.8% of the
indigenous children and youth enrolled in the education system were part
of the departments that have not implemented the PAEPI or have tried un-
successfully –hereafter treatment group–. In this regard, the majority of the
indigenous students were beneficiaries of the differentiated feeding policy.
It should be noted that even though it was expected a decrease on the
total number of indigenous students in 2020, due to the pandemic, in both the
treatment and control groups there was a rise in enrollment. Furthermore, in
2020, the maximum of the series was observed. The above is a first indicator
of the impact of the education policy implemented on indigenous enrollment.
Lecturas de Economía -Lect. Econ. - No. 101. Medellín, enero-junio 2024
In consequence, the population that recognizes itself as belonging to an
ethnic group is at a clear disadvantage. Although “flexible educational models,
ethnic education, school meals and transportation have contributed to reach-
ing disadvantaged groups; socioeconomic background, geographic location,
ethnicity and gender still largely condition the educational opportunities of
children” (OECD, 2016, p. 34). Therefore, according to González (2016),
serious gaps persist that disadvantage the rural population and, especially, in-
digenous and afro-Colombian children.
II. Trends in Indigenous Enrollment
As it can be seen in Figure 2, there is a rising trend in the indigenous
enrollment during the period 2011-2017. However, this trend is not followed
by the departments that have implemented the PAEPI –from now on the
control group–, which only shows a growing trend between 2014 and 2017,
and during the rest of the period shows increases followed by declines in the
level of enrollment.
Likewise, during the period 2010-2021 between 79.2% and 82.8% of the
indigenous children and youth enrolled in the education system were part
of the departments that have not implemented the PAEPI or have tried un-
successfully –hereafter treatment group–. In this regard, the majority of the
indigenous students were beneficiaries of the differentiated feeding policy.
It should be noted that even though it was expected a decrease on the
total number of indigenous students in 2020, due to the pandemic, in both the
treatment and control groups there was a rise in enrollment. Furthermore, in
2020, the maximum of the series was observed. The above is a first indicator
of the impact of the education policy implemented on indigenous enrollment.
Lecturas de Economía -Lect. Econ. - No. 101. Medellín, enero-junio 2024
Prada Camacho, C. N.: Indigenous zoom: Impact of the Implementation of the School...
Figure 2. Indigenous enrollment during the period 2010-2021
Source: Own elaboration based on MEN (2023a, 2023b, 2023c, 2023d).
III. School Feeding Program vs. School Feeding Program for Indigenous
Peoples
According to Moreira-Mora (2007), the socioeconomic background and
family context condition school desertion, through conditions of poverty and
marginality, early job placement, family anomie, etc. In consequence, educa-
tional systems have a low retention capacity of children and youngsters, espe-
cially during the transition from primary to secondary school (Espíndola &
León, 2002).
Therefore, as stated by Chica et al. (2012), policy makers should cor-
rect the shortcomings associated with the socioeconomic level of the stu-
dents, carrying out programs that guarantee nutrition, health, transporta-
tion, among others. This is how, throughout the world, school feeding
programs have been developed not only for nutritional purposes, but also
to encourage school enrollment and attendance, as it is an incentive for
55
Figure 2. Indigenous enrollment during the period 2010-2021
Source: Own elaboration based on MEN (2023a, 2023b, 2023c, 2023d).
III. School Feeding Program vs. School Feeding Program for Indigenous
Peoples
According to Moreira-Mora (2007), the socioeconomic background and
family context condition school desertion, through conditions of poverty and
marginality, early job placement, family anomie, etc. In consequence, educa-
tional systems have a low retention capacity of children and youngsters, espe-
cially during the transition from primary to secondary school (Espíndola &
León, 2002).
Therefore, as stated by Chica et al. (2012), policy makers should cor-
rect the shortcomings associated with the socioeconomic level of the stu-
dents, carrying out programs that guarantee nutrition, health, transporta-
tion, among others. This is how, throughout the world, school feeding
programs have been developed not only for nutritional purposes, but also
to encourage school enrollment and attendance, as it is an incentive for
55
56
families to send their children to school (Cohen & France, 2005, as quoted
in Archbold et al., 2017).
In this sense, Law 1096 of 2006 led to the transformation of the School
Feeding Program (PAE) from its initial nutritional focus into a pivotal instru-
ment for the attainment of educational objectives. Consequently, the nutri-
tional attention to children and youngsters in Colombia began to be employed
as a strategy to facilitate the access with permanence in the education system,
through a food supplement for consumption within the public educational
institutions (Gironza & Puerta, 2018).
The PAE has shown a positive impact on absenteeism, desertion and stu-
dent repetition. During the period 2012-2019, students receiving food supple-
ments were 32.5% and 39.2% less likely to be absent and to desert the education
system (respectively) than those not receiving them, while the student repetition
decreased by 13.7% (Ministerio de Educación Nacional & UApA, 2022).
Nonetheless, as it is shown by the Contraloría General de la Nación (2019),
generally the PAE’s menus do not consider sociocultural and medical particu-
larities of children –this was the third most mentioned problematic in the axe
quality and safety of the PAE–. Not considering these differences should de-
crease the impact of the policy in enrollment and permanence for the specific
groups that are not considered.
Integrating a human rights perspective into public policies related to food
is essential to ensure the dignity and well-being of all people. This holds
particular significance for indigenous peoples, as the processes involved in
sourcing food, gathering ingredients, and food preparation are part of their
cultural identity (FAO, 2009).
School feeding programs have emerged as a strategy for creating intercul-
tural societies (BID & WFP, 2023). The BID & WFP (2023) recommend the
implementation of school feeding programs tailored to the nutritional and
cultural needs of indigenous communities. This approach acknowledges the
cultural significance of food and its close tie to identity and territory (ICBF,
2010), fostering an intercultural environment that encourages mutual respect
Lecturas de Economía -Lect. Econ. - No. 101. Medellín, enero-junio 2024
families to send their children to school (Cohen & France, 2005, as quoted
in Archbold et al., 2017).
In this sense, Law 1096 of 2006 led to the transformation of the School
Feeding Program (PAE) from its initial nutritional focus into a pivotal instru-
ment for the attainment of educational objectives. Consequently, the nutri-
tional attention to children and youngsters in Colombia began to be employed
as a strategy to facilitate the access with permanence in the education system,
through a food supplement for consumption within the public educational
institutions (Gironza & Puerta, 2018).
The PAE has shown a positive impact on absenteeism, desertion and stu-
dent repetition. During the period 2012-2019, students receiving food supple-
ments were 32.5% and 39.2% less likely to be absent and to desert the education
system (respectively) than those not receiving them, while the student repetition
decreased by 13.7% (Ministerio de Educación Nacional & UApA, 2022).
Nonetheless, as it is shown by the Contraloría General de la Nación (2019),
generally the PAE’s menus do not consider sociocultural and medical particu-
larities of children –this was the third most mentioned problematic in the axe
quality and safety of the PAE–. Not considering these differences should de-
crease the impact of the policy in enrollment and permanence for the specific
groups that are not considered.
Integrating a human rights perspective into public policies related to food
is essential to ensure the dignity and well-being of all people. This holds
particular significance for indigenous peoples, as the processes involved in
sourcing food, gathering ingredients, and food preparation are part of their
cultural identity (FAO, 2009).
School feeding programs have emerged as a strategy for creating intercul-
tural societies (BID & WFP, 2023). The BID & WFP (2023) recommend the
implementation of school feeding programs tailored to the nutritional and
cultural needs of indigenous communities. This approach acknowledges the
cultural significance of food and its close tie to identity and territory (ICBF,
2010), fostering an intercultural environment that encourages mutual respect
Lecturas de Economía -Lect. Econ. - No. 101. Medellín, enero-junio 2024
Prada Camacho, C. N.: Indigenous zoom: Impact of the Implementation of the School...
for cultural and socioeconomic diversity (BID & WFP, 2023). This recogni-
tion of diverse food knowledge serves to highlight the valuable cultural con-
tributions of indigenous communities to the society (ICBF, 2010).
Hence, the National Government has developed a differential policy
through the Resolución 18858 of 2018. The PAEPI is a strategy aimed at
“enhancing access with permanence for indigenous children and youth to
the education system” (Resolución 18858 de 2018, Art. 2, Núm. 1.1). The
above by providing a nutritional supplement that not only reduces absen-
teeism and dropout rates, but also promotes healthy lifestyles considering,
recovering and strengthening cultural feeding processes (Resolución 18858
de 2018). Thus, “in educational establishments that serve a majority in-
digenous population and those located in indigenous territory, the school
feeding program must follow the cultural particularities of each indigenous
community” (Resolución 18858 de 2018, Art. 2, Núm. 1.3).
As the program aims to encourage regional diversity and to reinforce in-
digenous feeding practices, it is based on concertation processes with indige-
nous peoples. Indigenous communities determine the menus served at edu-
cational institutions through the ‘olla comunitaria1’ scheme (Resolución 18858
de 2018).
They define a diverse range of twenty complete menus, with recipes and
preparation guidelines, along with a list of required food items. These menus
ensure a balanced nutritional intake, encompassing proteins, carbohydrates,
fats, vitamins, and minerals, providing a minimum of 20% of daily calorie
requirements for smaller meals and 30% for lunch supplements (Resolución
18858 de 2018, Art. 2, Núm. 2.8).
Furthermore, menu planning considers the availability of regional foods
and seasonal harvest calendars, as well as indigenous culinary traditions (Reso-
lución 18858 de 2018).
1 “The ‘olla comunitaria’ is an ancestral tradition among indigenous peoples, wherein community
members come together to prepare and share meals. This tradition serves as a means of pre-
serving cultural values associated with their native cuisine while fostering harmony, cohesion
within the community, solidarity, reciprocity and cost efficiency” (Resolución 18858 de 2018,
Art. 2, Núm. 2.8).
57
for cultural and socioeconomic diversity (BID & WFP, 2023). This recogni-
tion of diverse food knowledge serves to highlight the valuable cultural con-
tributions of indigenous communities to the society (ICBF, 2010).
Hence, the National Government has developed a differential policy
through the Resolución 18858 of 2018. The PAEPI is a strategy aimed at
“enhancing access with permanence for indigenous children and youth to
the education system” (Resolución 18858 de 2018, Art. 2, Núm. 1.1). The
above by providing a nutritional supplement that not only reduces absen-
teeism and dropout rates, but also promotes healthy lifestyles considering,
recovering and strengthening cultural feeding processes (Resolución 18858
de 2018). Thus, “in educational establishments that serve a majority in-
digenous population and those located in indigenous territory, the school
feeding program must follow the cultural particularities of each indigenous
community” (Resolución 18858 de 2018, Art. 2, Núm. 1.3).
As the program aims to encourage regional diversity and to reinforce in-
digenous feeding practices, it is based on concertation processes with indige-
nous peoples. Indigenous communities determine the menus served at edu-
cational institutions through the ‘olla comunitaria1’ scheme (Resolución 18858
de 2018).
They define a diverse range of twenty complete menus, with recipes and
preparation guidelines, along with a list of required food items. These menus
ensure a balanced nutritional intake, encompassing proteins, carbohydrates,
fats, vitamins, and minerals, providing a minimum of 20% of daily calorie
requirements for smaller meals and 30% for lunch supplements (Resolución
18858 de 2018, Art. 2, Núm. 2.8).
Furthermore, menu planning considers the availability of regional foods
and seasonal harvest calendars, as well as indigenous culinary traditions (Reso-
lución 18858 de 2018).
1 “The ‘olla comunitaria’ is an ancestral tradition among indigenous peoples, wherein community
members come together to prepare and share meals. This tradition serves as a means of pre-
serving cultural values associated with their native cuisine while fostering harmony, cohesion
within the community, solidarity, reciprocity and cost efficiency” (Resolución 18858 de 2018,
Art. 2, Núm. 2.8).
57
58
In addition, Ministerio de Educación Nacional and the territorial entities
make a call and socialization of the program with the indigenous communities,
promoting their participation as operators of the PAEPI (World Bank, 2022).
In this way, “they can decide to take charge of the school feeding operation in
a timely and informed manner” (World Bank, 2022, p. 7), and if they have the
experience and administrative capacity, they can be contracted (Resolución
18858 de 2018).
As well, “the resolution proposes the adaptation and implementation of
the PAEPI’s monitoring, follow-up, and control model to suit the unique con-
text of each indigenous community, ensuring compliance with current regula-
tions” (World Bank, 2022, p. 43). Additionally, it underscores the importance
of monitoring the food component “in accordance with the food referral pro-
cedures to be carried out by the respective operator, as well as utilizing the
Kardex format designed for the attention to the indigenous population” (Res-
olución 18858, 2018, Art. 2, Núm. 12). Lastly, it places the responsibility on
indigenous communities to actively engage in social oversight and report any
irregularities (Resolución 18858 de 2018).
Within the framework of the PAEPI, territorial entities and educational in-
stitutions have the opportunity to promote indigenous food knowledge, con-
tributing to the preservation of indigenous cultural values. In this regard,
territorial entities can implement measures to prioritize the procurement of
locally grown and produced food (Resolución 18858 de 2018). According
to the World Bank (2022), cooking local food nurtures their feeding culture,
whereas strengthens local production and empowers indigenous communi-
ties. Additionally, the encouragement of knowledge-sharing and research ini-
tiatives can facilitate feeding practices rooted in the indigenous worldview
(Resolución 18858 de 2018).
A. Limitations of the PAEPI
Nevertheless, fostering collaborative processes with indigenous commu-
nities poses a significant challenge in ensuring the program’s effectiveness. As
indigenous communities are often geographically dispersed, communication
barriers can emerge between the territorial entities and these communities.
Lecturas de Economía -Lect. Econ. - No. 101. Medellín, enero-junio 2024
In addition, Ministerio de Educación Nacional and the territorial entities
make a call and socialization of the program with the indigenous communities,
promoting their participation as operators of the PAEPI (World Bank, 2022).
In this way, “they can decide to take charge of the school feeding operation in
a timely and informed manner” (World Bank, 2022, p. 7), and if they have the
experience and administrative capacity, they can be contracted (Resolución
18858 de 2018).
As well, “the resolution proposes the adaptation and implementation of
the PAEPI’s monitoring, follow-up, and control model to suit the unique con-
text of each indigenous community, ensuring compliance with current regula-
tions” (World Bank, 2022, p. 43). Additionally, it underscores the importance
of monitoring the food component “in accordance with the food referral pro-
cedures to be carried out by the respective operator, as well as utilizing the
Kardex format designed for the attention to the indigenous population” (Res-
olución 18858, 2018, Art. 2, Núm. 12). Lastly, it places the responsibility on
indigenous communities to actively engage in social oversight and report any
irregularities (Resolución 18858 de 2018).
Within the framework of the PAEPI, territorial entities and educational in-
stitutions have the opportunity to promote indigenous food knowledge, con-
tributing to the preservation of indigenous cultural values. In this regard,
territorial entities can implement measures to prioritize the procurement of
locally grown and produced food (Resolución 18858 de 2018). According
to the World Bank (2022), cooking local food nurtures their feeding culture,
whereas strengthens local production and empowers indigenous communi-
ties. Additionally, the encouragement of knowledge-sharing and research ini-
tiatives can facilitate feeding practices rooted in the indigenous worldview
(Resolución 18858 de 2018).
A. Limitations of the PAEPI
Nevertheless, fostering collaborative processes with indigenous commu-
nities poses a significant challenge in ensuring the program’s effectiveness. As
indigenous communities are often geographically dispersed, communication
barriers can emerge between the territorial entities and these communities.
Lecturas de Economía -Lect. Econ. - No. 101. Medellín, enero-junio 2024
Prada Camacho, C. N.: Indigenous zoom: Impact of the Implementation of the School...
Consequently, the PAEPI may predominantly benefit nearby communities, a
situation encountered by some territorial entities during the implementation
process (World Bank, 2022), limiting its reach and coverage.
Moreover, the National Government cannot ensure the active engage-
ment of indigenous communities; the extent of their involvement in program
planning and operation significantly influences its success and cultural rele-
vance. In this regard, some territorial entities have observed that indigenous
communities are sometimes disinterested in participating (World Bank, 2022).
In addition, the huge diversity among indigenous peoples presents addi-
tional challenges for the program. Given that each community possesses its
own unique dietary culture and preferences, adapting the program to satisfy
their needs can prove to be a significant undertaking. Thus, “even 33,3% of
the indigenous leaders surveyed during the World Bank’s program evaluation
expressed that the PAEPI is not tailored to the specific needs, expectations,
capacities, and knowledge of their community” (World Bank, 2022, p. 59).
IV. Data
The model was constructed with annual data of 24 departments of Colom-
bia for the period 2017-2021. These departments are divided into two groups
considering the information provided by the World Bank (2022). The first
group is composed by the departments that have implemented the PAEPI2
–treatment group–, whereas the second is conformed by the departments that
have not carried it out3 yet or tried unsuccessfully to implement it4 5 –control
group–, despite having (both) indigenous territories or majority indigenous
population.
2 Arauca, Casanare, Cauca, Cesar, Córdoba, Chocó, Guaviare, La Guajira, Magdalena, Nariño,
Norte de Santander, Putumayo, Valle del Cauca and Vichada.
3 Amazonas, Antioquia, Huila and Risaralda.
4 Boyacá, Guainía, Santander, Sucre, Tolima and Vaupés. Even though Meta should be in-
cluded in this group, it was removed from the sample as in Villavicencio –its capital city– the
program was successfully implemented. In this order of ideas, including Meta might bias the
model.
5 Due to “the lack of experience of indigenous organizations and difficulties in meeting the
food demands to supply the operation” (World Bank, 2022, p. 27).
59
Consequently, the PAEPI may predominantly benefit nearby communities, a
situation encountered by some territorial entities during the implementation
process (World Bank, 2022), limiting its reach and coverage.
Moreover, the National Government cannot ensure the active engage-
ment of indigenous communities; the extent of their involvement in program
planning and operation significantly influences its success and cultural rele-
vance. In this regard, some territorial entities have observed that indigenous
communities are sometimes disinterested in participating (World Bank, 2022).
In addition, the huge diversity among indigenous peoples presents addi-
tional challenges for the program. Given that each community possesses its
own unique dietary culture and preferences, adapting the program to satisfy
their needs can prove to be a significant undertaking. Thus, “even 33,3% of
the indigenous leaders surveyed during the World Bank’s program evaluation
expressed that the PAEPI is not tailored to the specific needs, expectations,
capacities, and knowledge of their community” (World Bank, 2022, p. 59).
IV. Data
The model was constructed with annual data of 24 departments of Colom-
bia for the period 2017-2021. These departments are divided into two groups
considering the information provided by the World Bank (2022). The first
group is composed by the departments that have implemented the PAEPI2
–treatment group–, whereas the second is conformed by the departments that
have not carried it out3 yet or tried unsuccessfully to implement it4 5 –control
group–, despite having (both) indigenous territories or majority indigenous
population.
2 Arauca, Casanare, Cauca, Cesar, Córdoba, Chocó, Guaviare, La Guajira, Magdalena, Nariño,
Norte de Santander, Putumayo, Valle del Cauca and Vichada.
3 Amazonas, Antioquia, Huila and Risaralda.
4 Boyacá, Guainía, Santander, Sucre, Tolima and Vaupés. Even though Meta should be in-
cluded in this group, it was removed from the sample as in Villavicencio –its capital city– the
program was successfully implemented. In this order of ideas, including Meta might bias the
model.
5 Due to “the lack of experience of indigenous organizations and difficulties in meeting the
food demands to supply the operation” (World Bank, 2022, p. 27).
59
60
Considering that this public policy should increase the access to educa-
tion of indigenous children, the dependent variable is a proxy6 of the total
number of indigenous children enrolled in school. For 2017 and 2020, this
information is taken from the Ministerio de Educación Nacional. Meanwhile,
given that the information on enrollment in preschool, elementary and mid-
dle school education from 2018 to 2021 reported by the Ministerio de Edu-
cación Nacional was not consistent with the reality, for the years 2018, 2019
and 2021, observations were estimated through the total number of children
and youth enrolled considering the average percentage of indigenous enrolled
for each department during 2010-2017 and 2020.
As the objective is to identify the impact of the PAEPI on indigenous
enrollment, the Did estimator –interaction between the time in which the
policy was implemented and the treatment group– is its main variable. As
well, the model is explained by a dummy variable of the PAEPI, which takes
the number 1 if in the department it was implemented and 0 otherwise, and
a dummy variable of time which takes the number 1 for the period when the
policy was implemented and 0 otherwise.
Likewise, the model is explained by some control variables. to mitigate
the potential omitted variable bias7. Therefore, the total forced displacement
events8 is included, as Gamboa et al. (2019) prove that the probability of
leaving the educational system increases to the extent that the child has been
a victim of forced displacement. The total anti-personnel mines, unexploded
ordnance and improvised explosive device events9 is included as a proxy of
the violence in the department, since desertion is pushed by illegal recruit-
ment (Perfetti, 2004) and the actions of illegal armed groups, including armed
6 Thus, the estimation may have inaccuracies.
7 Since in uncontrolled experiments other variables will have effects on the outputs observed
in addition to the treatment (Vicens, 2008).
8 This variable was extracted from the Unidad de Víctimas data.
9 Variable constructed with data from the Unidad de Víctimas and the Observatorio de Memo-
ria y Conflicto. It should be noted that this variable may have problems of overestimation,
as there were missing values and the values were different in both datasets, it was taken the
highest number of events for each observation.
Lecturas de Economía -Lect. Econ. - No. 101. Medellín, enero-junio 2024
Considering that this public policy should increase the access to educa-
tion of indigenous children, the dependent variable is a proxy6 of the total
number of indigenous children enrolled in school. For 2017 and 2020, this
information is taken from the Ministerio de Educación Nacional. Meanwhile,
given that the information on enrollment in preschool, elementary and mid-
dle school education from 2018 to 2021 reported by the Ministerio de Edu-
cación Nacional was not consistent with the reality, for the years 2018, 2019
and 2021, observations were estimated through the total number of children
and youth enrolled considering the average percentage of indigenous enrolled
for each department during 2010-2017 and 2020.
As the objective is to identify the impact of the PAEPI on indigenous
enrollment, the Did estimator –interaction between the time in which the
policy was implemented and the treatment group– is its main variable. As
well, the model is explained by a dummy variable of the PAEPI, which takes
the number 1 if in the department it was implemented and 0 otherwise, and
a dummy variable of time which takes the number 1 for the period when the
policy was implemented and 0 otherwise.
Likewise, the model is explained by some control variables. to mitigate
the potential omitted variable bias7. Therefore, the total forced displacement
events8 is included, as Gamboa et al. (2019) prove that the probability of
leaving the educational system increases to the extent that the child has been
a victim of forced displacement. The total anti-personnel mines, unexploded
ordnance and improvised explosive device events9 is included as a proxy of
the violence in the department, since desertion is pushed by illegal recruit-
ment (Perfetti, 2004) and the actions of illegal armed groups, including armed
6 Thus, the estimation may have inaccuracies.
7 Since in uncontrolled experiments other variables will have effects on the outputs observed
in addition to the treatment (Vicens, 2008).
8 This variable was extracted from the Unidad de Víctimas data.
9 Variable constructed with data from the Unidad de Víctimas and the Observatorio de Memo-
ria y Conflicto. It should be noted that this variable may have problems of overestimation,
as there were missing values and the values were different in both datasets, it was taken the
highest number of events for each observation.
Lecturas de Economía -Lect. Econ. - No. 101. Medellín, enero-junio 2024
Prada Camacho, C. N.: Indigenous zoom: Impact of the Implementation of the School...
strikes, can prevent children from going to school. In addition, a higher de-
partmental gross domestic product10 should increase the enrollment since
a better economic performance should lead to more investment in educa-
tion. Finally, the PAE11 encourages the access with permanence to education,
whereas the pandemic12 had a negative impact on it.
V. Empirical Strategy
To approximate the impact of the implementation of the PAEPI, the
model was estimated using the Difference-in-Differences (Did) method, since
DiD is frequently used in impact evaluation studies with non-experimental
settings (Fredriksson & Oliveira, 2019; Roth et al., 2022). This approach en-
ables us to estimate the causal effects of the program through a combination
of “cross-sectional treatment-control comparisons and before-after studies
for a more robust identification” (Fredriksson & Oliveira, 2019, p. 520).
As there is heterogeneity between the departments, and this is what the lit-
erature notes as a natural experiment, the model was controlled by individual
effects (αi). Therefore, the following model was estimated:
Indigenous enrollmentit = β1 + β2displacementit
+ β3anti − personnel minesit
+ β4GDP it + β5P AE′s benef iciariesit
+ β6Covid mortality rateit + δ1group
+ δ2time + δ3Did + αi + εit
(1)
10 This variable was taken from the Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística in
constant prices.
11 The total number of beneficiaries of the PAE was extracted from the Ministerio de Educación
Nacional.
12 The Covid mortality rate is used as a proxy of the pandemic. It was taken from the Departa-
mento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística. It was calculated by the DANE considering
the following formula: Covid mortality
rate = N umber of deaths due to COV ID-19
N umber of conf irmed cases of COV ID-19 ∗ 100
61
strikes, can prevent children from going to school. In addition, a higher de-
partmental gross domestic product10 should increase the enrollment since
a better economic performance should lead to more investment in educa-
tion. Finally, the PAE11 encourages the access with permanence to education,
whereas the pandemic12 had a negative impact on it.
V. Empirical Strategy
To approximate the impact of the implementation of the PAEPI, the
model was estimated using the Difference-in-Differences (Did) method, since
DiD is frequently used in impact evaluation studies with non-experimental
settings (Fredriksson & Oliveira, 2019; Roth et al., 2022). This approach en-
ables us to estimate the causal effects of the program through a combination
of “cross-sectional treatment-control comparisons and before-after studies
for a more robust identification” (Fredriksson & Oliveira, 2019, p. 520).
As there is heterogeneity between the departments, and this is what the lit-
erature notes as a natural experiment, the model was controlled by individual
effects (αi). Therefore, the following model was estimated:
Indigenous enrollmentit = β1 + β2displacementit
+ β3anti − personnel minesit
+ β4GDP it + β5P AE′s benef iciariesit
+ β6Covid mortality rateit + δ1group
+ δ2time + δ3Did + αi + εit
(1)
10 This variable was taken from the Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística in
constant prices.
11 The total number of beneficiaries of the PAE was extracted from the Ministerio de Educación
Nacional.
12 The Covid mortality rate is used as a proxy of the pandemic. It was taken from the Departa-
mento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística. It was calculated by the DANE considering
the following formula: Covid mortality
rate = N umber of deaths due to COV ID-19
N umber of conf irmed cases of COV ID-19 ∗ 100
61
62
The identification with DiD is based on the parallel trends assumption
(Fredriksson & Oliveira, 2019), which means that the treatment group with-
out the implementation of this policy would have had the same trend in the
enrollment of indigenous children as the control group. Hence, if the coef-
ficient δ1 is found to be statistically significant, it provides evidence that this
assumption is violated, as it indicates if there are differences between the con-
trol and treatment group (Aguilar, n.d.). Since δ1 was found non-significant,
it was assumed that the parallel trends assumption is satisfied, thereby the
estimation using the DiD method is valid.
Finally, the homoscedasticity and no serial correlation assumptions were
tested with the Breusch-Pagan and Breusch-Godfrey statisticians, respectively13.
Since the model was found to be heteroscedastic and heteroscedasticity inval-
idates the hypothesis tests (Wooldridge, 2016), we reestimated the variance-
covariance matrix.
VI. Results
From the estimation of the model, it was obtained that the variables are sta-
tistically significant with an 85% confidence level, except for the forced displace-
ment and the Did estimator. Despite this fact, the model predicts the expected
sign for these variables. Specifically, the analysis reveals that the greater forced
displacements, the lower access to education, whereas the implementation of
the PAEPI may increase the indigenous enrollment in education.
Hence, this study provides evidence of the potential positive impact that
the PAEPI can have. The findings suggest that this policy increases indigenous
enrollment –which was its expected impact–, indicating that the introduction
of indigenous cultural background into the feeding school policy might reduce
educational disparities, providing access for indigenous students.
Thus, the behavior of the indigenous enrollment in education during the
period 2017-2021 can be explained by the pandemic, the PAE, the gross do-
mestic product of the department and the anti-personnel mines, unexploded
ordnance and improvised explosive device events. As expected, the pandemic
13 To see the results of the tests, see the Appendix.
Lecturas de Economía -Lect. Econ. - No. 101. Medellín, enero-junio 2024
The identification with DiD is based on the parallel trends assumption
(Fredriksson & Oliveira, 2019), which means that the treatment group with-
out the implementation of this policy would have had the same trend in the
enrollment of indigenous children as the control group. Hence, if the coef-
ficient δ1 is found to be statistically significant, it provides evidence that this
assumption is violated, as it indicates if there are differences between the con-
trol and treatment group (Aguilar, n.d.). Since δ1 was found non-significant,
it was assumed that the parallel trends assumption is satisfied, thereby the
estimation using the DiD method is valid.
Finally, the homoscedasticity and no serial correlation assumptions were
tested with the Breusch-Pagan and Breusch-Godfrey statisticians, respectively13.
Since the model was found to be heteroscedastic and heteroscedasticity inval-
idates the hypothesis tests (Wooldridge, 2016), we reestimated the variance-
covariance matrix.
VI. Results
From the estimation of the model, it was obtained that the variables are sta-
tistically significant with an 85% confidence level, except for the forced displace-
ment and the Did estimator. Despite this fact, the model predicts the expected
sign for these variables. Specifically, the analysis reveals that the greater forced
displacements, the lower access to education, whereas the implementation of
the PAEPI may increase the indigenous enrollment in education.
Hence, this study provides evidence of the potential positive impact that
the PAEPI can have. The findings suggest that this policy increases indigenous
enrollment –which was its expected impact–, indicating that the introduction
of indigenous cultural background into the feeding school policy might reduce
educational disparities, providing access for indigenous students.
Thus, the behavior of the indigenous enrollment in education during the
period 2017-2021 can be explained by the pandemic, the PAE, the gross do-
mestic product of the department and the anti-personnel mines, unexploded
ordnance and improvised explosive device events. As expected, the pandemic
13 To see the results of the tests, see the Appendix.
Lecturas de Economía -Lect. Econ. - No. 101. Medellín, enero-junio 2024
Prada Camacho, C. N.: Indigenous zoom: Impact of the Implementation of the School...
had a negative impact on enrollment, whereas a higher number of beneficia-
ries of the PAE enhanced it. Nonetheless, it must be noted that even though
the departmental GDP and the anti-personnel mines, unexploded ordnance
and improvised explosive device events are statistically significant, they do
not have the expected signs.
Although an increase in the department’s income should increase edu-
cational enrollment, there is a negative relationship between these variables.
However, as it was shown before, the indigenous population is mostly concen-
trated in the departments with lower income levels. Then, the departments
with a lower GDP may be the ones with higher enrollment rates of indigenous
children and youth.
Besides, albeit violence would be expected to discourage educational ac-
cess, it is shown a positive relationship. This may be because with higher
levels of violence, the parents tend to enroll their children to keep them away
from the armed conflict.
Table 1. Impact of the implementation of the PAEPI on the indigenous enrollment14
Dependent variable
PAE beneficiaries 0.023 (0.015)
GDP -0.314 (0.200)
Forced displacement -0.065 (0.112)
Antipersonnel mines 48.093* (28.617)
Covid -11.503** (4.519)
Treatment group 815.688 (809.799)
Time 1 459.116** (587.739)
Did estimator 447.215 (666.754)
Constant 9 243.408*** (635.709)
Note: *p < 0.1; **p < 0.05; ***p < 0.01
Source: Own elaboration.
14 This estimation is consistent with heteroscedasticity.
63
had a negative impact on enrollment, whereas a higher number of beneficia-
ries of the PAE enhanced it. Nonetheless, it must be noted that even though
the departmental GDP and the anti-personnel mines, unexploded ordnance
and improvised explosive device events are statistically significant, they do
not have the expected signs.
Although an increase in the department’s income should increase edu-
cational enrollment, there is a negative relationship between these variables.
However, as it was shown before, the indigenous population is mostly concen-
trated in the departments with lower income levels. Then, the departments
with a lower GDP may be the ones with higher enrollment rates of indigenous
children and youth.
Besides, albeit violence would be expected to discourage educational ac-
cess, it is shown a positive relationship. This may be because with higher
levels of violence, the parents tend to enroll their children to keep them away
from the armed conflict.
Table 1. Impact of the implementation of the PAEPI on the indigenous enrollment14
Dependent variable
PAE beneficiaries 0.023 (0.015)
GDP -0.314 (0.200)
Forced displacement -0.065 (0.112)
Antipersonnel mines 48.093* (28.617)
Covid -11.503** (4.519)
Treatment group 815.688 (809.799)
Time 1 459.116** (587.739)
Did estimator 447.215 (666.754)
Constant 9 243.408*** (635.709)
Note: *p < 0.1; **p < 0.05; ***p < 0.01
Source: Own elaboration.
14 This estimation is consistent with heteroscedasticity.
63
64
Conclusions
The School Feeding Program has discouraged absenteeism, desertion and
student repetition, whereas it has promoted the learning abilities of students.
Nonetheless, as the significant plurality in the Colombian population hinders
the operation of the PAE, the National Government implemented the PAEPI
with the objective of contributing to the access with permanence to education
of indigenous children and youth, since it is based on the recognition of their
cultural background.
In 2020, the PAEPI significantly extended the coverage of indigenous
beneficiaries in the PAE, providing attention to 14 departments with a high
proportion of indigenous children. According to the World Bank (2022),
84.8% of indigenous children and youth enrolled in school received a nu-
tritional supplement, which meant an increase of 5.6 percentage points com-
pared to 2019. Hence, more than 25 thousand indigenous students became
beneficiaries of the PAEPI.
The results of this study offer valuable insights into the impact of the
PAEPI on indigenous enrollment in education during the period 2017-2021.
Although this study reveals that the impact of the PAEPI on indigenous en-
rollment is not statistically significant the model predicts the expected sign,
providing evidence of the potential effect that this policy can have. The find-
ings suggest that this policy increases indigenous enrollment, indicating that
the PAEPI may play a role in addressing educational disparities for indigenous
communities.
According to the World Bank (2022), families were more willing to enroll
their children in school since the implementation of the PAEPI, as it provided
them access to healthier and more culturally appropriate meals. The above, in
addition to the rise in the number of indigenous students in the educational
system in 2020, show evidence of the potential of this policy to encourage
indigenous enrollment.
On one hand, the lack of statistical significance in the study’s findings
may be attributed to the temporal context of the program’s implementation
and several implementation shortcomings. Firstly, the impact of the program
Lecturas de Economía -Lect. Econ. - No. 101. Medellín, enero-junio 2024
Conclusions
The School Feeding Program has discouraged absenteeism, desertion and
student repetition, whereas it has promoted the learning abilities of students.
Nonetheless, as the significant plurality in the Colombian population hinders
the operation of the PAE, the National Government implemented the PAEPI
with the objective of contributing to the access with permanence to education
of indigenous children and youth, since it is based on the recognition of their
cultural background.
In 2020, the PAEPI significantly extended the coverage of indigenous
beneficiaries in the PAE, providing attention to 14 departments with a high
proportion of indigenous children. According to the World Bank (2022),
84.8% of indigenous children and youth enrolled in school received a nu-
tritional supplement, which meant an increase of 5.6 percentage points com-
pared to 2019. Hence, more than 25 thousand indigenous students became
beneficiaries of the PAEPI.
The results of this study offer valuable insights into the impact of the
PAEPI on indigenous enrollment in education during the period 2017-2021.
Although this study reveals that the impact of the PAEPI on indigenous en-
rollment is not statistically significant the model predicts the expected sign,
providing evidence of the potential effect that this policy can have. The find-
ings suggest that this policy increases indigenous enrollment, indicating that
the PAEPI may play a role in addressing educational disparities for indigenous
communities.
According to the World Bank (2022), families were more willing to enroll
their children in school since the implementation of the PAEPI, as it provided
them access to healthier and more culturally appropriate meals. The above, in
addition to the rise in the number of indigenous students in the educational
system in 2020, show evidence of the potential of this policy to encourage
indigenous enrollment.
On one hand, the lack of statistical significance in the study’s findings
may be attributed to the temporal context of the program’s implementation
and several implementation shortcomings. Firstly, the impact of the program
Lecturas de Economía -Lect. Econ. - No. 101. Medellín, enero-junio 2024
Prada Camacho, C. N.: Indigenous zoom: Impact of the Implementation of the School...
could have been hindered by the pandemic, which may have limited its ef-
fectiveness. Additionally, the World Bank (2022) has highlighted certain im-
plementation issues, in addition to the operational challenges posed by the
pandemic for territorial entities and indigenous peoples.
There are problems of interpretation by the ETCs and indigenous peoples
with respect to Resolución 18858, which often delay or discourage the adop-
tion of the model, […] [and] in some cases, lead to less inclusion of indigenous
foods, preparations and practices. […] [As well,] the qualifying requirements
create barriers to contracting with indigenous peoples, especially for those of
smaller size and organizational level. [Furthermore,] disagreements between
communities or indigenous peoples delay and complicate the concertation
processes to the point of completely obstructing [its] implementation, [and]
a lack of coordination and clarity of some ETC discourages indigenous com-
munities and peoples from participating (pp. 60-65).
On the other hand, considering the limited sample size, because this im-
pact assessment was realized considering solely departmental data, the results
of this study are not conclusive. The sample size used may not have been large
enough to detect significant differences. Thus, further research should be done
to accurately determine the impact of the PAEPI on indigenous enrollment.
Finally, this study provides evidence of the potential benefits of adopting
differential treatments to enhance the impact of public policies. By consider-
ing the particularities and requirements of the target population, policymakers
can identify their unique needs and design policies, accordingly, ensuring that
they meet their goal(s), increasing their effectiveness. Hence, it is necessary
to continue the work with indigenous communities and make indigenous stu-
dents more involved in the implementation process of the PAEPI.
65
could have been hindered by the pandemic, which may have limited its ef-
fectiveness. Additionally, the World Bank (2022) has highlighted certain im-
plementation issues, in addition to the operational challenges posed by the
pandemic for territorial entities and indigenous peoples.
There are problems of interpretation by the ETCs and indigenous peoples
with respect to Resolución 18858, which often delay or discourage the adop-
tion of the model, […] [and] in some cases, lead to less inclusion of indigenous
foods, preparations and practices. […] [As well,] the qualifying requirements
create barriers to contracting with indigenous peoples, especially for those of
smaller size and organizational level. [Furthermore,] disagreements between
communities or indigenous peoples delay and complicate the concertation
processes to the point of completely obstructing [its] implementation, [and]
a lack of coordination and clarity of some ETC discourages indigenous com-
munities and peoples from participating (pp. 60-65).
On the other hand, considering the limited sample size, because this im-
pact assessment was realized considering solely departmental data, the results
of this study are not conclusive. The sample size used may not have been large
enough to detect significant differences. Thus, further research should be done
to accurately determine the impact of the PAEPI on indigenous enrollment.
Finally, this study provides evidence of the potential benefits of adopting
differential treatments to enhance the impact of public policies. By consider-
ing the particularities and requirements of the target population, policymakers
can identify their unique needs and design policies, accordingly, ensuring that
they meet their goal(s), increasing their effectiveness. Hence, it is necessary
to continue the work with indigenous communities and make indigenous stu-
dents more involved in the implementation process of the PAEPI.
65
66
Appendix
Table A1. Assumptions’ verification15
Non-autocorrelation
Breusch-Godfrey test
Homoscedasticity
Breusch-Pagan test
0.3216 0.00001885
Source: Own elaboration.
Ethics Statement
This research article did not work with a person or groups of persons for
the generation of data used in the methodology, therefore it did not require
the endorsement of an Ethics Committee for its realization.
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Lecturas de Economía -Lect. Econ. - No. 101. Medellín, enero-junio 2024
Appendix
Table A1. Assumptions’ verification15
Non-autocorrelation
Breusch-Godfrey test
Homoscedasticity
Breusch-Pagan test
0.3216 0.00001885
Source: Own elaboration.
Ethics Statement
This research article did not work with a person or groups of persons for
the generation of data used in the methodology, therefore it did not require
the endorsement of an Ethics Committee for its realization.
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