1Journal Vitae | https://revistas.udea.edu.co/index.php/vitaeVolume 30 | Number 01 | Article 349519
Production of enriched cakes by apple pulp and peel powder and evaluation of chemical, functional and textural properties
JOURNAL VITAE
School of Pharmaceutical and
Food Sciences
ISSN 0121-4004 | ISSNe 2145-2660
University of Antioquia
Medellin, Colombia
Filliations
1 Department of Food Science and
Technology, Ferdowsi University
of Mashhad, PO Box: 91785-1163,
Mashhad, Iran
*Corresponding
Ahmadreza Hosseini
ahmadrezahosseini@mail.um.ac.ir
Received: 7 May 2022
Accepted: 22 October 2022
Published: 7 March 2023
Production of enriched cakes by apple
pulp and peel powder and evaluation of
chemical, functional and textural properties
Producción de pasteles enriquecidos por pulpa de manzana
y cáscara en polvo y evaluación de propiedades químicas,
funcionales y texturales
Ahmadreza Hosseini 1,*, Fahimeh Pazhouhandeh 1
ABSTRACT
Background: Apple pomace is a by-product of the fruit juice industry and comprises peel,
seed, stem, and pulp tissues. This by-product contains dietary fibers, polyphenols, vitamins,
and organic acids that can benefit human health and have a high potential as a dietary source.
Baked products are well-known food types to humans and have a key role in feeding people
worldwide. Nowadays, enriched products such as bread, cakes, and biscuits are available in
stores. Different studies worldwide have been done about applying the by-products of the
fruit juice industry in the bakery. Objective: This research aimed to evaluate apple peel (APE)
and pulp (APU) powders separately as a partial substitute for wheat flour in cake production.
Methods: Apple peel and pulp separately produced as the residual wastes of juicing were
dried for 3 hours in oven (60°C). The dried pulp and peel were ground and sieved using a 60
μm mesh. In this research, chemical and physicochemical analyses were performed according
to AACC (Approved Methods of the American Association of Cereal Chemists) and standard
food analysis methods. Textural characteristic was analyzed by a texture analyzer (Brookfield
CT3-10 Kg, US) equipped with an aluminum probe. Results: Different levels of APE and APU
powders (10%, 20%, and 30 %) were used to enrich the cakes. The ash content, fat content,
water adsorption capacity, and oil absorption capacity of the wheat flour were lower than
APU and APE, whereas the moisture content, protein content, bulk density, and pH showed
a reverse trend. Adding APU and APP to the cake formula increased total dietary fiber (TDF)
from 4.14 % in the control sample to 27.71 % in the sample with 30 % apple peel powder (APE-
30). The highest a* colorimetric parameter (redness) in the cake core was 3.82 in the APE-30
sample. The addition of APE and APU significantly increased the hardness, gumminess, and
chewiness of the samples (p<0.05). APE-10 samples could improve the nutritional properties of
the cakes without significant reduction (p>0.05) in overall acceptance compared to the control
sample. Conclusion: The results of this research demonstrated that a partial replacement of
the wheat flour with apple pulp and peel significantly increased the dietary fibers, especially
insoluble dietary fiber, compared to the control sample. Apple pulp and apple peel powders
had the potential for use in cake making as a good source of dietary fibers.
Keywords: Apple pomace powders, Enriched cake, Textural properties, Dietary fiber, Apple
peel.
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
Published 7 March 2023
Doi: https://doi.org/10.17533/udea.vitae.v30n1a349519
Production of enriched cakes by apple pulp and peel powder and evaluation of chemical, functional and textural properties
JOURNAL VITAE
School of Pharmaceutical and
Food Sciences
ISSN 0121-4004 | ISSNe 2145-2660
University of Antioquia
Medellin, Colombia
Filliations
1 Department of Food Science and
Technology, Ferdowsi University
of Mashhad, PO Box: 91785-1163,
Mashhad, Iran
*Corresponding
Ahmadreza Hosseini
ahmadrezahosseini@mail.um.ac.ir
Received: 7 May 2022
Accepted: 22 October 2022
Published: 7 March 2023
Production of enriched cakes by apple
pulp and peel powder and evaluation of
chemical, functional and textural properties
Producción de pasteles enriquecidos por pulpa de manzana
y cáscara en polvo y evaluación de propiedades químicas,
funcionales y texturales
Ahmadreza Hosseini 1,*, Fahimeh Pazhouhandeh 1
ABSTRACT
Background: Apple pomace is a by-product of the fruit juice industry and comprises peel,
seed, stem, and pulp tissues. This by-product contains dietary fibers, polyphenols, vitamins,
and organic acids that can benefit human health and have a high potential as a dietary source.
Baked products are well-known food types to humans and have a key role in feeding people
worldwide. Nowadays, enriched products such as bread, cakes, and biscuits are available in
stores. Different studies worldwide have been done about applying the by-products of the
fruit juice industry in the bakery. Objective: This research aimed to evaluate apple peel (APE)
and pulp (APU) powders separately as a partial substitute for wheat flour in cake production.
Methods: Apple peel and pulp separately produced as the residual wastes of juicing were
dried for 3 hours in oven (60°C). The dried pulp and peel were ground and sieved using a 60
μm mesh. In this research, chemical and physicochemical analyses were performed according
to AACC (Approved Methods of the American Association of Cereal Chemists) and standard
food analysis methods. Textural characteristic was analyzed by a texture analyzer (Brookfield
CT3-10 Kg, US) equipped with an aluminum probe. Results: Different levels of APE and APU
powders (10%, 20%, and 30 %) were used to enrich the cakes. The ash content, fat content,
water adsorption capacity, and oil absorption capacity of the wheat flour were lower than
APU and APE, whereas the moisture content, protein content, bulk density, and pH showed
a reverse trend. Adding APU and APP to the cake formula increased total dietary fiber (TDF)
from 4.14 % in the control sample to 27.71 % in the sample with 30 % apple peel powder (APE-
30). The highest a* colorimetric parameter (redness) in the cake core was 3.82 in the APE-30
sample. The addition of APE and APU significantly increased the hardness, gumminess, and
chewiness of the samples (p<0.05). APE-10 samples could improve the nutritional properties of
the cakes without significant reduction (p>0.05) in overall acceptance compared to the control
sample. Conclusion: The results of this research demonstrated that a partial replacement of
the wheat flour with apple pulp and peel significantly increased the dietary fibers, especially
insoluble dietary fiber, compared to the control sample. Apple pulp and apple peel powders
had the potential for use in cake making as a good source of dietary fibers.
Keywords: Apple pomace powders, Enriched cake, Textural properties, Dietary fiber, Apple
peel.
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
Published 7 March 2023
Doi: https://doi.org/10.17533/udea.vitae.v30n1a349519
2Journal Vitae | https://revistas.udea.edu.co/index.php/vitae Volume 30 | Number 01 | Article 349519Ahmadreza Hosseini, Fahimeh Pazhouhandeh
1. INTRODUCTION
Functional foods are produced for the purpose of
providing health and nutritional value. The Food
and Drugs Administration (FDA) recommends using
substances such as antioxidants, phytochemicals, and
dietary fibers in food compositions (1). Non‐starch
polysaccharides (NSP) are recognized as dietary fibers
(2). A fiber-rich diet is characterized by biological
benefits such as improving colon health, lowering the
risk of chronic diseases, and protecting the cells from
oxidative damage. Additionally, the fermentation of
the dietary fibers results in short-chain fatty acids that
are beneficial to human health (3).
However, such positive biological effects are
provided by certain dietary fibers which may not
have the same effect and depend on fiber sources
and processing methods (4). Fruit fibers contain low
amounts of phytic acid and bioactive molecules such
as antioxidants (5), and phenols. Characteristics
such as higher water-holding capacity, solubility,
and fermenting ability in the intestine have given
higher qualities to fruit fibers (6).
Apple pomace is a by-product of the fruit juice
industry and comprises peel, seed, stem, and pulp
tissues. This by-product contains dietary fibers,
polyphenols, vitamins, and organic acids that can
benefit human health (7, 8) and have high potential as
a dietary source (3). The main components of apple
dietary fiber are pectin (5.50-11.70 %), cellulose
(7.20-43.60 %), hemicelluloses (4.26-24.40 %), lignin
(15.30-23.50 %), and gums (9). Apple peel (APE) and
Apple pulp (APU) powders have high amounts of
soluble and insoluble dietary fiber; therefore, they
can be used to enrich food products.
Baked products are well-known food types to
humans and have a key role in feeding people
worldwide. Among most of them, wheat flour usually
is the main ingredient in processing. However, can
be replaced with partially dietary fibers to produce
enriched products. Nowadays, enriched products
such as bread, cakes, and biscuits are available in
stores. Some of the criteria that consumers consider
when choosing foods include taste, convenience,
price, and other characteristics, such as health
(10). Replacing a part of wheat flour with functional
ingredients to produce enriched products can
change properties such as stability, texture, and
taste (11, 12).
Sing et al. produced high-quality enriched muffins
using 6 % concentrate of black carrot dietary fiber
and 0.5 % xanthan gum (13). O’Shea et al. utilized
RESUMEN
Antecedentes: la pulpa de manzana es un subproducto de la industria del jugo de frutas y se compone de tejidos de cáscara,
semillas, tallo y pulpa. Este subproducto contiene fibra dietética, polifenoles, vitaminas y ácidos orgánicos que pueden ser
beneficiosos para la salud humana y tienen un alto potencial como fuente dietética. Los productos horneados son de tipos de
alimentos bien conocidos para los seres humanos y son clave en la alimentación de las personas de todo el mundo. Hoy en día,
los productos enriquecidos como pan, pasteles y galletas están disponibles en las tiendas. Se han hecho diferentes estudios en
todo el mundo sobre la aplicación del subproducto de la industria del jugo de frutas en la panadería. Objetivo: El propósito de
esta investigación fue evaluar los polvos de cáscara de manzana (APE) y pulpa (APU) como sustituto parcial de la harina de trigo
en la producción de pasteles. Métodos: Cáscaras de manzana y pulpa producidas por separado como desechos residuales de
jugos, se secaron durante 3 horas en el horno (60 °C). La pulpa seca y la cáscara fueron molidas y tamizadas usando una malla
de 60 micras. En esta investigación el análisis químico y físico-químico realizado de acuerdo con el AACC (Aprobado Métodos
de la Asociación Americana de Químicos del Cereales) y los métodos estándar de análisis de alimentos. La característica textural
fue analizada por el analizador de textura (Brookfield CT3-10 Kg, US) equipado con una sonda de aluminio. Resultados: Se
utilizaron diferentes niveles de polvos APE y APU (10, 20 and 30 %) para enriquecer los pasteles. La capacidad de absorción de
ceniza, grasa, agua y aceite de la harina de trigo fue menor que la APU y APE, mientras que la humedad, la proteína, la densidad
a granel y el pH mostraron una tendencia inversa. Además, APU y APE en fórmula de pastel, aumentaron la fibra dietética
total (TDF) de 4.14 % en la muestra de control a 27.71 % en la muestra con un 30 % de polvo de pelar de manzana (APE-30). El
parámetro más alto a* colorimétrico en núcleo de pastel fue de 3.82 (enrojecimiento) en la muestra APE-30. La adición de APE
y APU aumentó significativamente la dureza, gomosidad y masticabilidad de las muestras (p<0.05). Las muestras de APE-10
podrían mejorar las propiedades nutricionales de los pasteles sin reducción significativa (P<0.05) en aceptación general, en
comparación con la muestra de control. Conclusión: Los resultados de este estudio demostraron que un reemplazo parcial
de la harina de trigo por pulpa de manzana y cáscara aumentó significativamente la fibra dietética especialmente la insoluble,
cuando se compara con la muestra de control. La pulpa en polvo y la cáscara de manzana tienen el potencial de uso en la
fabricación de pasteles como una buena fuente de fibra dietética.
Palabras clave: Pulpa de manzana, pastel enriquecido, Propiedades texturales, fibra dietética, cáscara de manzana.
1. INTRODUCTION
Functional foods are produced for the purpose of
providing health and nutritional value. The Food
and Drugs Administration (FDA) recommends using
substances such as antioxidants, phytochemicals, and
dietary fibers in food compositions (1). Non‐starch
polysaccharides (NSP) are recognized as dietary fibers
(2). A fiber-rich diet is characterized by biological
benefits such as improving colon health, lowering the
risk of chronic diseases, and protecting the cells from
oxidative damage. Additionally, the fermentation of
the dietary fibers results in short-chain fatty acids that
are beneficial to human health (3).
However, such positive biological effects are
provided by certain dietary fibers which may not
have the same effect and depend on fiber sources
and processing methods (4). Fruit fibers contain low
amounts of phytic acid and bioactive molecules such
as antioxidants (5), and phenols. Characteristics
such as higher water-holding capacity, solubility,
and fermenting ability in the intestine have given
higher qualities to fruit fibers (6).
Apple pomace is a by-product of the fruit juice
industry and comprises peel, seed, stem, and pulp
tissues. This by-product contains dietary fibers,
polyphenols, vitamins, and organic acids that can
benefit human health (7, 8) and have high potential as
a dietary source (3). The main components of apple
dietary fiber are pectin (5.50-11.70 %), cellulose
(7.20-43.60 %), hemicelluloses (4.26-24.40 %), lignin
(15.30-23.50 %), and gums (9). Apple peel (APE) and
Apple pulp (APU) powders have high amounts of
soluble and insoluble dietary fiber; therefore, they
can be used to enrich food products.
Baked products are well-known food types to
humans and have a key role in feeding people
worldwide. Among most of them, wheat flour usually
is the main ingredient in processing. However, can
be replaced with partially dietary fibers to produce
enriched products. Nowadays, enriched products
such as bread, cakes, and biscuits are available in
stores. Some of the criteria that consumers consider
when choosing foods include taste, convenience,
price, and other characteristics, such as health
(10). Replacing a part of wheat flour with functional
ingredients to produce enriched products can
change properties such as stability, texture, and
taste (11, 12).
Sing et al. produced high-quality enriched muffins
using 6 % concentrate of black carrot dietary fiber
and 0.5 % xanthan gum (13). O’Shea et al. utilized
RESUMEN
Antecedentes: la pulpa de manzana es un subproducto de la industria del jugo de frutas y se compone de tejidos de cáscara,
semillas, tallo y pulpa. Este subproducto contiene fibra dietética, polifenoles, vitaminas y ácidos orgánicos que pueden ser
beneficiosos para la salud humana y tienen un alto potencial como fuente dietética. Los productos horneados son de tipos de
alimentos bien conocidos para los seres humanos y son clave en la alimentación de las personas de todo el mundo. Hoy en día,
los productos enriquecidos como pan, pasteles y galletas están disponibles en las tiendas. Se han hecho diferentes estudios en
todo el mundo sobre la aplicación del subproducto de la industria del jugo de frutas en la panadería. Objetivo: El propósito de
esta investigación fue evaluar los polvos de cáscara de manzana (APE) y pulpa (APU) como sustituto parcial de la harina de trigo
en la producción de pasteles. Métodos: Cáscaras de manzana y pulpa producidas por separado como desechos residuales de
jugos, se secaron durante 3 horas en el horno (60 °C). La pulpa seca y la cáscara fueron molidas y tamizadas usando una malla
de 60 micras. En esta investigación el análisis químico y físico-químico realizado de acuerdo con el AACC (Aprobado Métodos
de la Asociación Americana de Químicos del Cereales) y los métodos estándar de análisis de alimentos. La característica textural
fue analizada por el analizador de textura (Brookfield CT3-10 Kg, US) equipado con una sonda de aluminio. Resultados: Se
utilizaron diferentes niveles de polvos APE y APU (10, 20 and 30 %) para enriquecer los pasteles. La capacidad de absorción de
ceniza, grasa, agua y aceite de la harina de trigo fue menor que la APU y APE, mientras que la humedad, la proteína, la densidad
a granel y el pH mostraron una tendencia inversa. Además, APU y APE en fórmula de pastel, aumentaron la fibra dietética
total (TDF) de 4.14 % en la muestra de control a 27.71 % en la muestra con un 30 % de polvo de pelar de manzana (APE-30). El
parámetro más alto a* colorimétrico en núcleo de pastel fue de 3.82 (enrojecimiento) en la muestra APE-30. La adición de APE
y APU aumentó significativamente la dureza, gomosidad y masticabilidad de las muestras (p<0.05). Las muestras de APE-10
podrían mejorar las propiedades nutricionales de los pasteles sin reducción significativa (P<0.05) en aceptación general, en
comparación con la muestra de control. Conclusión: Los resultados de este estudio demostraron que un reemplazo parcial
de la harina de trigo por pulpa de manzana y cáscara aumentó significativamente la fibra dietética especialmente la insoluble,
cuando se compara con la muestra de control. La pulpa en polvo y la cáscara de manzana tienen el potencial de uso en la
fabricación de pasteles como una buena fuente de fibra dietética.
Palabras clave: Pulpa de manzana, pastel enriquecido, Propiedades texturales, fibra dietética, cáscara de manzana.
3Journal Vitae | https://revistas.udea.edu.co/index.php/vitaeVolume 30 | Number 01 | Article 349519
Production of enriched cakes by apple pulp and peel powder and evaluation of chemical, functional and textural properties
orange juice pomace (up to 8 %) to increase the
dietary fiber content of bread (14). Using carrot
pomace powder to produce cakes resulted in a
product with optimal density, hardness, and sensory
scores (15). Also, the application of apple pomace in
biscuits showed low glycemic index levels as a partial
substitution of wheat flour in cake elaboration and
produced a healthy food product (16).
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1. Materials
Apple peel and pulp, separately produced as
residual wastes of juicing, were dried for 3 hours
in the oven (60 °C). The dried pulp and peel were
ground and sieved using a 60 μm mesh. Then, the
samples were placed into plastic lid packages and
stored in a refrigerator at 4 °C. The packages were
kept at room temperature for 12 hours before use.
2.2. Methods
2.2.1. Chemical analysis
The moisture and ash content of the APE, APU, and
wheat flour were determined according to methods
6540:1980 and 5984:2002 (17). The lipid content was
tested according to the Soxhlet method (18), and
the protein content was determined following the
modified Lowry method (19). The fiber content was
assessed upon method 32–07.01 (20).
2.2.2. Water holding capacity
The Sudha et al. methods, with some modifications,
were used to quantify the water-holding capacity
of the powders (21). One gram of each sample
was dissolved in 15 ml of distilled water in a 50 ml
falcon tube. Next, the samples were kept at room
temperature for water absorption. After 24 hours,
the samples were centrifuged at 15,000 g for 20
minutes. Next, the upper clear liquid phase was
removed. The lower part was weighted to determine
the water-holding capacity (g/g) by measuring the
weight difference between the sample residue and
the initial sample.
2.2.3. Oil absorption capacity (OAC)
OAC was analyzed based on the methods developed
by Ktenioudaki et al. with slight modifications (22).
One gram of each powder was mixed with 15 ml
sunflower oil in a 50 ml falcon tube. Next, the
samples were kept at room temperature to absorb
the oil. After 24 hours, the samples were centrifuged
at 15,000 g for 20 minutes. By removing the upper oil
phase and weighting the residue, the oil absorption
capacity was determined by calculating the weight
difference.
2.2.4. pH
One gram of each APE and APU powders were
dissolved and homogenized in 200 ml water using
a mixer. Next, the mixture was filtered using a filter,
and the pH was determined at 24.0 ± 0.3 °C using a
pH meter (Jenway-3020-UK) with method 02-52 (20).
2.2.5. Bulk density
Fifty grams of each sample was poured into a 250
ml graduated cylinder with slight shaking to measure
the sample volume (20).
2.2.6. Cake production
APU and APE powders were used separately in
three levels (10, 20, and 30 %) to prepare the cake
samples. Another cake sample was produced with
only wheat flour as a control. The used amounts are
shown in Table 1. The cake samples were made by
blending ingredients, including sugar, milk, egg, and
commercial emulsifier, and using an electric mixer
for 4 minutes under fast speed to reach a foam-like
mixture. Next, flour and baking powder were slowly
added to the compound at a slow mixer speed.
After 1 minute, the generated dough was poured
into a cake pan and placed in the oven at 180 °C
for 20 minutes.
Table 1. Formulation of prepared cakes
Ingredients
Control
APU-10
APU-20
APU-30
APE-10
APE-20
APE-30
Wheat flour 100 90 80 70 90 80 70
Apple powder 0 10 20 30 10 20 30
Egg 130 130 130 130 130 130 130
Sugar 60 60 60 60 60 60 60
Emulsifier 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
Baking powder 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8
Based on weight (g)
2.2.7. Specific volume
The cake volume was calculated using colza seeds
based on the displacement principle. Subsequently,
weight (g) and specific volume (cm3/g) were
determined (20).
Production of enriched cakes by apple pulp and peel powder and evaluation of chemical, functional and textural properties
orange juice pomace (up to 8 %) to increase the
dietary fiber content of bread (14). Using carrot
pomace powder to produce cakes resulted in a
product with optimal density, hardness, and sensory
scores (15). Also, the application of apple pomace in
biscuits showed low glycemic index levels as a partial
substitution of wheat flour in cake elaboration and
produced a healthy food product (16).
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1. Materials
Apple peel and pulp, separately produced as
residual wastes of juicing, were dried for 3 hours
in the oven (60 °C). The dried pulp and peel were
ground and sieved using a 60 μm mesh. Then, the
samples were placed into plastic lid packages and
stored in a refrigerator at 4 °C. The packages were
kept at room temperature for 12 hours before use.
2.2. Methods
2.2.1. Chemical analysis
The moisture and ash content of the APE, APU, and
wheat flour were determined according to methods
6540:1980 and 5984:2002 (17). The lipid content was
tested according to the Soxhlet method (18), and
the protein content was determined following the
modified Lowry method (19). The fiber content was
assessed upon method 32–07.01 (20).
2.2.2. Water holding capacity
The Sudha et al. methods, with some modifications,
were used to quantify the water-holding capacity
of the powders (21). One gram of each sample
was dissolved in 15 ml of distilled water in a 50 ml
falcon tube. Next, the samples were kept at room
temperature for water absorption. After 24 hours,
the samples were centrifuged at 15,000 g for 20
minutes. Next, the upper clear liquid phase was
removed. The lower part was weighted to determine
the water-holding capacity (g/g) by measuring the
weight difference between the sample residue and
the initial sample.
2.2.3. Oil absorption capacity (OAC)
OAC was analyzed based on the methods developed
by Ktenioudaki et al. with slight modifications (22).
One gram of each powder was mixed with 15 ml
sunflower oil in a 50 ml falcon tube. Next, the
samples were kept at room temperature to absorb
the oil. After 24 hours, the samples were centrifuged
at 15,000 g for 20 minutes. By removing the upper oil
phase and weighting the residue, the oil absorption
capacity was determined by calculating the weight
difference.
2.2.4. pH
One gram of each APE and APU powders were
dissolved and homogenized in 200 ml water using
a mixer. Next, the mixture was filtered using a filter,
and the pH was determined at 24.0 ± 0.3 °C using a
pH meter (Jenway-3020-UK) with method 02-52 (20).
2.2.5. Bulk density
Fifty grams of each sample was poured into a 250
ml graduated cylinder with slight shaking to measure
the sample volume (20).
2.2.6. Cake production
APU and APE powders were used separately in
three levels (10, 20, and 30 %) to prepare the cake
samples. Another cake sample was produced with
only wheat flour as a control. The used amounts are
shown in Table 1. The cake samples were made by
blending ingredients, including sugar, milk, egg, and
commercial emulsifier, and using an electric mixer
for 4 minutes under fast speed to reach a foam-like
mixture. Next, flour and baking powder were slowly
added to the compound at a slow mixer speed.
After 1 minute, the generated dough was poured
into a cake pan and placed in the oven at 180 °C
for 20 minutes.
Table 1. Formulation of prepared cakes
Ingredients
Control
APU-10
APU-20
APU-30
APE-10
APE-20
APE-30
Wheat flour 100 90 80 70 90 80 70
Apple powder 0 10 20 30 10 20 30
Egg 130 130 130 130 130 130 130
Sugar 60 60 60 60 60 60 60
Emulsifier 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
Baking powder 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8
Based on weight (g)
2.2.7. Specific volume
The cake volume was calculated using colza seeds
based on the displacement principle. Subsequently,
weight (g) and specific volume (cm3/g) were
determined (20).
4Journal Vitae | https://revistas.udea.edu.co/index.php/vitae Volume 30 | Number 01 | Article 349519Ahmadreza Hosseini, Fahimeh Pazhouhandeh
2.2.8. Colorimetry
Three colorimetric parameters, including a*, b*, and L*,
were investigated. Parameter a* indicates the green
to the red color range, b* delineates the blue to the
yellow color range, and L* represents cake lightness.
The crust and crumb of the cakes were separated,
and the samples were placed in an imaging box with
10 lamps to prepare the samples for the test. Imaging
was carried out using a digital camera (Canon, EOS
450D). Also, the measurement of color parameters
was done using the Image processing toolbox in
MATLAB (v 9.4, 2018a) software (23).
2.2.9. Textural analysis
The texture analysis was conducted using the
reference method (20) with a texture analyzer
(Brookfield CT3-10 kg, US) equipped with an
aluminum probe (36 mm diameter) and a loading
weight of 5 kg. The cake crust was separated, and
then the crumb was examined by slicing 2×2×2 cm
cubes to analyze the texture. The required pressure
to compress the cubes to 40 % of the original height
was calculated using the device in the following
conditions: pre-test speed = 1 mm/s; speed during
the test = 1.7 mm/s; post-test speed = 10 mm/s.
2.2.10. Sensory analysis
Seventeen trained panelists carried out sensory
analyses of the cakes on a five-point hedonic
scale (1 dislike very much to 5 like very much). The
parameters to evaluate were aroma, texture, taste,
odor, and appearance; an overall quality score was
computed as the average of the five traits. Mean
score values for sensory evaluations of cakes were
used (24).
2.2.11. Statistical analysis
One-way ANOVA and Duncan’s multiple-range tests
(significance level at p<0.05) were used to analyze
the obtained data in SPSS v24 statistical software.
All the tests in this research were performed in
triplicate.
3. RESULTS
3.1. Chemical analysis of powder
In the chemical analysis results (Table 2), it was
found that all three samples showed statistically
significant differences (p<0.05). The wheat flour
had higher moisture, 13.42±0.18 %, than APU and
APE, but the ash content was less than in other
samples. APU and APE had 3.27±0.05 % and
1.58±0.04 % protein which were significantly lower
than the wheat flour (p<0.05). The insoluble fiber
of the wheat flour (5.89±0.05 %), significantly lower
than APE (38.12±0.04 %), and APU (33.71±0.05 %)
(p<0.05). The dietary soluble fiber of APE and APU
were 19.24±0.07 % and 13.89±0.03 %, respectively.
Table 2. Chemical composition of wheat flour, APU and APE powders (DWB).
Chemical composition (%) Moisture Ash Protein Fat Insoluble dietary fiber Soluble dietary fiber
wheat flour 13.42±0.18 a 0.63±0.01 c 10.11±0.08 a 1.08±0.12 c 5.89±0.05 c 2.32±0.00 c
APU 8.81±0.11 b 1.62±0.06 b 3.27±0.05 b 2.43±0.08 b 33.71±0.05 b 13.89±0.03 b
APE 7.70±0.09 c 1.97±0.02 a 1.58±0.04 c 4.25±0.14 a 38.12±0.04 a 19.24±0.07 a
DWB = Dry weight basis
Values in the same column with the same letter are not significantly different (p<0.05).
3.2. Dietary fiber analysis of cakes
In this research, seven treatments of the samples
(three different levels of percentage replacement of
APU and APE powders and a control sample) were
prepared and examined for chemical properties.
Figure 1 shows that replacing the wheat flour
with APU and APE powders significantly affected
the amount of soluble dietary fiber (SDF) and
insoluble dietary fiber (IDF) in the cakes (p<0.05).
Data comparison showed that the control sample
contained the lowest amount of SDF (1.03±0.12 %),
IDF (3.58±0.21 %), and total fiber, while APE-30 had
the highest SDF (9.87±0.53 %) and IDF (17.64±0.79
%). However, by increasing the percentage of APE
or APU powder in the cakes, the amounts of IDF and
SDF were significantly increased from 11.61±0.81
to 17.64±0.79 % and 3.84±0.44 to 9.87±0.53 %,
respectively (p<0.05).
2.2.8. Colorimetry
Three colorimetric parameters, including a*, b*, and L*,
were investigated. Parameter a* indicates the green
to the red color range, b* delineates the blue to the
yellow color range, and L* represents cake lightness.
The crust and crumb of the cakes were separated,
and the samples were placed in an imaging box with
10 lamps to prepare the samples for the test. Imaging
was carried out using a digital camera (Canon, EOS
450D). Also, the measurement of color parameters
was done using the Image processing toolbox in
MATLAB (v 9.4, 2018a) software (23).
2.2.9. Textural analysis
The texture analysis was conducted using the
reference method (20) with a texture analyzer
(Brookfield CT3-10 kg, US) equipped with an
aluminum probe (36 mm diameter) and a loading
weight of 5 kg. The cake crust was separated, and
then the crumb was examined by slicing 2×2×2 cm
cubes to analyze the texture. The required pressure
to compress the cubes to 40 % of the original height
was calculated using the device in the following
conditions: pre-test speed = 1 mm/s; speed during
the test = 1.7 mm/s; post-test speed = 10 mm/s.
2.2.10. Sensory analysis
Seventeen trained panelists carried out sensory
analyses of the cakes on a five-point hedonic
scale (1 dislike very much to 5 like very much). The
parameters to evaluate were aroma, texture, taste,
odor, and appearance; an overall quality score was
computed as the average of the five traits. Mean
score values for sensory evaluations of cakes were
used (24).
2.2.11. Statistical analysis
One-way ANOVA and Duncan’s multiple-range tests
(significance level at p<0.05) were used to analyze
the obtained data in SPSS v24 statistical software.
All the tests in this research were performed in
triplicate.
3. RESULTS
3.1. Chemical analysis of powder
In the chemical analysis results (Table 2), it was
found that all three samples showed statistically
significant differences (p<0.05). The wheat flour
had higher moisture, 13.42±0.18 %, than APU and
APE, but the ash content was less than in other
samples. APU and APE had 3.27±0.05 % and
1.58±0.04 % protein which were significantly lower
than the wheat flour (p<0.05). The insoluble fiber
of the wheat flour (5.89±0.05 %), significantly lower
than APE (38.12±0.04 %), and APU (33.71±0.05 %)
(p<0.05). The dietary soluble fiber of APE and APU
were 19.24±0.07 % and 13.89±0.03 %, respectively.
Table 2. Chemical composition of wheat flour, APU and APE powders (DWB).
Chemical composition (%) Moisture Ash Protein Fat Insoluble dietary fiber Soluble dietary fiber
wheat flour 13.42±0.18 a 0.63±0.01 c 10.11±0.08 a 1.08±0.12 c 5.89±0.05 c 2.32±0.00 c
APU 8.81±0.11 b 1.62±0.06 b 3.27±0.05 b 2.43±0.08 b 33.71±0.05 b 13.89±0.03 b
APE 7.70±0.09 c 1.97±0.02 a 1.58±0.04 c 4.25±0.14 a 38.12±0.04 a 19.24±0.07 a
DWB = Dry weight basis
Values in the same column with the same letter are not significantly different (p<0.05).
3.2. Dietary fiber analysis of cakes
In this research, seven treatments of the samples
(three different levels of percentage replacement of
APU and APE powders and a control sample) were
prepared and examined for chemical properties.
Figure 1 shows that replacing the wheat flour
with APU and APE powders significantly affected
the amount of soluble dietary fiber (SDF) and
insoluble dietary fiber (IDF) in the cakes (p<0.05).
Data comparison showed that the control sample
contained the lowest amount of SDF (1.03±0.12 %),
IDF (3.58±0.21 %), and total fiber, while APE-30 had
the highest SDF (9.87±0.53 %) and IDF (17.64±0.79
%). However, by increasing the percentage of APE
or APU powder in the cakes, the amounts of IDF and
SDF were significantly increased from 11.61±0.81
to 17.64±0.79 % and 3.84±0.44 to 9.87±0.53 %,
respectively (p<0.05).
5Journal Vitae | https://revistas.udea.edu.co/index.php/vitaeVolume 30 | Number 01 | Article 349519
Production of enriched cakes by apple pulp and peel powder and evaluation of chemical, functional and textural properties
3.3. Functional and physiochemical properties
of APU and APE powders
The wheat flour, APE, and APU powders were
analyzed using a pH meter (Table 3). According
to the results, the APE contained a lower pH level
(4.31±0.02) than the APU powder (4.97±0.01).
Additionally, the pH levels of both powder types
were significantly lower than the wheat flour
(6.35±0.02) (p<0.05).
A. B.
Figure 1. A. Insoluble dietary fiber (IDF), and B. Soluble dietary fiber (SDF) content of the cakes prepared with increasing quantities
of APU and APE (0 %, 10 %, 20%, 30%). Error bars represent the standard deviation. Columns with different letters are significantly
different (p<0.05).
Table 3. Functional and physicochemical properties of Wheat flour, APU, and APE powders.
Sample pH Water absorption capacity (g/g) Oil absorption capacity (g/g) Bulk density (g/l)
wheat flour 6.35±0.02 a 4.71±0.12 c 1.14±0.09 c 503.4±2.5 a
APU 4.97±0.01 b 6.69±0.10 b 2.19±0.07 b 438.6±3.7 b
APE 4.31±0.02 c 7.26±0.13 a 2.32±0.03 a 421.1±4.9 c
Water absorption capacity (WAC) is a practical
parameter in food products such as bread, cakes,
and macaroni. Table 3 shows that APE with 7.26
± 0.13 (g/g) contained the highest value, and the
wheat flour with 4.71±0.12 (g/g) had the lowest. The
Oil absorption capacity (OAC) of the APE and APU
powders were 2.32±0.03 (g/g) and 2.19±0.07 (g/g),
respectively, and significantly higher than wheat
flour (p<0.05) (Table 3). The obtained bulk density
for the wheat flour, APU, and APE were 503.4±2.5
(g/l), 438.6±3.7 (g/l), and 421.1±4.9 (g/l), which were
significantly different (p<0.05).
3.4. Physical characteristics
Figure 2 shows the physical characteristics of the
control and enriched cakes. As the data indicates in
Figure 2A, the volume of the samples were reduced
significantly with the addition of APE and APU
powder levels compared to the control (p<0.05). As
can be seen in figure 2, the volume of the APU and
APE samples ranged from 141 cm3 to 168 cm3
, which
were lower than that of the control sample (p<0.05).
By increasing the APU or APE powder content in the
cake formula (Figure 2B), the density of the samples
was higher than the control sample (p<0.05).
Production of enriched cakes by apple pulp and peel powder and evaluation of chemical, functional and textural properties
3.3. Functional and physiochemical properties
of APU and APE powders
The wheat flour, APE, and APU powders were
analyzed using a pH meter (Table 3). According
to the results, the APE contained a lower pH level
(4.31±0.02) than the APU powder (4.97±0.01).
Additionally, the pH levels of both powder types
were significantly lower than the wheat flour
(6.35±0.02) (p<0.05).
A. B.
Figure 1. A. Insoluble dietary fiber (IDF), and B. Soluble dietary fiber (SDF) content of the cakes prepared with increasing quantities
of APU and APE (0 %, 10 %, 20%, 30%). Error bars represent the standard deviation. Columns with different letters are significantly
different (p<0.05).
Table 3. Functional and physicochemical properties of Wheat flour, APU, and APE powders.
Sample pH Water absorption capacity (g/g) Oil absorption capacity (g/g) Bulk density (g/l)
wheat flour 6.35±0.02 a 4.71±0.12 c 1.14±0.09 c 503.4±2.5 a
APU 4.97±0.01 b 6.69±0.10 b 2.19±0.07 b 438.6±3.7 b
APE 4.31±0.02 c 7.26±0.13 a 2.32±0.03 a 421.1±4.9 c
Water absorption capacity (WAC) is a practical
parameter in food products such as bread, cakes,
and macaroni. Table 3 shows that APE with 7.26
± 0.13 (g/g) contained the highest value, and the
wheat flour with 4.71±0.12 (g/g) had the lowest. The
Oil absorption capacity (OAC) of the APE and APU
powders were 2.32±0.03 (g/g) and 2.19±0.07 (g/g),
respectively, and significantly higher than wheat
flour (p<0.05) (Table 3). The obtained bulk density
for the wheat flour, APU, and APE were 503.4±2.5
(g/l), 438.6±3.7 (g/l), and 421.1±4.9 (g/l), which were
significantly different (p<0.05).
3.4. Physical characteristics
Figure 2 shows the physical characteristics of the
control and enriched cakes. As the data indicates in
Figure 2A, the volume of the samples were reduced
significantly with the addition of APE and APU
powder levels compared to the control (p<0.05). As
can be seen in figure 2, the volume of the APU and
APE samples ranged from 141 cm3 to 168 cm3
, which
were lower than that of the control sample (p<0.05).
By increasing the APU or APE powder content in the
cake formula (Figure 2B), the density of the samples
was higher than the control sample (p<0.05).
6Journal Vitae | https://revistas.udea.edu.co/index.php/vitae Volume 30 | Number 01 | Article 349519Ahmadreza Hosseini, Fahimeh Pazhouhandeh
3.5. Colorimetry
The effects of adding APU and APE powders on
the cake color have been separately presented in
Table 4. The highest lightness level of the cake core
and crust were observed in the control sample;
these parameters were 81.23±5.88 and 52.21±3.12,
respectively. Among the enriched samples, the
APU-10 sample showed no significant difference
compared to the control (p>0.05). Evaluation of the
cake crust showed that increasing the enrichment
level did not significantly affect the lightness of
the cake enriched with APU (p>0.05). The a* index
demonstrates the color range of the samples
from green to red. By increasing APU and APE, a*
values increased from 1.38±0.16 to 3.01±0.22 and
1.59±0.18 to 3.82±0.25, respectively, in the cake
core (p<0.05). The cake core in APE samples also
showed higher a* index levels. The highest level of
redness in the cake core was found in the APE-30
(3.82±0.25). Evaluation of the cake crust showed
that the control sample had the highest redness
with a value of 5.99±0.23. With the addition of APU
and APE powders, the redness of the samples was
reduced compared to the control sample (p<0.05).
The b* index demonstrates the color range of blue
to yellow in the samples. In the evaluation of cake
cores, the enriched samples had less yellowness
compared to the control sample (p<0.05), but
they had no significant difference from each other
(p>0.05). The yellowness index cake crusts dropped
from 28.14±2.73 to 24.36±2.03 and 25.66±1.57 to
18.39±1.07 with increasing the level of APU and
APE, respectively.
A. B.
Figure 2. Effect of different levels of APU and APE powders on volume (A) and density (B) of enriched cakes.
Table 4. Effect of different level of APU and APE powders on color parameters of enriched cakes.
Sample
Core Crust
L* a* b* L* a* b*
Control 81.23±5.88 a 1.02±0.11 f 29.72±1.23 a 52.21±3.12 a 5.99±0.23 a 31.22±1.98 a
APU-10 77.41±5.01 b 1.38±0.16 e 23.15±1.55 b 49.87±3.98 ab 5.81±0.41 b 28.14±2.73 ab
APU-20 72.29±3.95cd 2.12±0.13 c 23.97±1.38 b 47.62±4.01 bc 5.63±0.39 d 27.09±1.61 bc
APU-30 69.05±4.28 d 3.01±0.22 b 21.07±2.41 b 47.35±5.28 bc 5.70±0.35 c 24.36±2.03 cd
APE-10 73.71±6.43 c 1.59±0.18 d 23.81±2.04 b 44.41±3.84 cd 4.92±0.34 f 25.66±1.57 bc
APE-20 72.08±4.80 cd 2.30±0.20 c 22.97±1.81 b 41.30±2.57 de 5.08±0.31 e 22.18±1.39 d
APE-30 65.19±7.61 e 3.82±0.25 a 21.34±0.05 b 38.97±3.91 e 4.34±0.27 g 18.39±1.07 e
Values in the same column with the same letter are not significantly different (p<0.05)
3.5. Colorimetry
The effects of adding APU and APE powders on
the cake color have been separately presented in
Table 4. The highest lightness level of the cake core
and crust were observed in the control sample;
these parameters were 81.23±5.88 and 52.21±3.12,
respectively. Among the enriched samples, the
APU-10 sample showed no significant difference
compared to the control (p>0.05). Evaluation of the
cake crust showed that increasing the enrichment
level did not significantly affect the lightness of
the cake enriched with APU (p>0.05). The a* index
demonstrates the color range of the samples
from green to red. By increasing APU and APE, a*
values increased from 1.38±0.16 to 3.01±0.22 and
1.59±0.18 to 3.82±0.25, respectively, in the cake
core (p<0.05). The cake core in APE samples also
showed higher a* index levels. The highest level of
redness in the cake core was found in the APE-30
(3.82±0.25). Evaluation of the cake crust showed
that the control sample had the highest redness
with a value of 5.99±0.23. With the addition of APU
and APE powders, the redness of the samples was
reduced compared to the control sample (p<0.05).
The b* index demonstrates the color range of blue
to yellow in the samples. In the evaluation of cake
cores, the enriched samples had less yellowness
compared to the control sample (p<0.05), but
they had no significant difference from each other
(p>0.05). The yellowness index cake crusts dropped
from 28.14±2.73 to 24.36±2.03 and 25.66±1.57 to
18.39±1.07 with increasing the level of APU and
APE, respectively.
A. B.
Figure 2. Effect of different levels of APU and APE powders on volume (A) and density (B) of enriched cakes.
Table 4. Effect of different level of APU and APE powders on color parameters of enriched cakes.
Sample
Core Crust
L* a* b* L* a* b*
Control 81.23±5.88 a 1.02±0.11 f 29.72±1.23 a 52.21±3.12 a 5.99±0.23 a 31.22±1.98 a
APU-10 77.41±5.01 b 1.38±0.16 e 23.15±1.55 b 49.87±3.98 ab 5.81±0.41 b 28.14±2.73 ab
APU-20 72.29±3.95cd 2.12±0.13 c 23.97±1.38 b 47.62±4.01 bc 5.63±0.39 d 27.09±1.61 bc
APU-30 69.05±4.28 d 3.01±0.22 b 21.07±2.41 b 47.35±5.28 bc 5.70±0.35 c 24.36±2.03 cd
APE-10 73.71±6.43 c 1.59±0.18 d 23.81±2.04 b 44.41±3.84 cd 4.92±0.34 f 25.66±1.57 bc
APE-20 72.08±4.80 cd 2.30±0.20 c 22.97±1.81 b 41.30±2.57 de 5.08±0.31 e 22.18±1.39 d
APE-30 65.19±7.61 e 3.82±0.25 a 21.34±0.05 b 38.97±3.91 e 4.34±0.27 g 18.39±1.07 e
Values in the same column with the same letter are not significantly different (p<0.05)
7Journal Vitae | https://revistas.udea.edu.co/index.php/vitaeVolume 30 | Number 01 | Article 349519
Production of enriched cakes by apple pulp and peel powder and evaluation of chemical, functional and textural properties
3.6. Textural properties
The results (Table 5) showed that hardness,
gumminess, and chewiness of the samples increased
significantly (p<0.05), which were higher in all
samples compared to the control. However, in equal
enrichment levels, the samples enriched with APE
had higher levels of hardness, gumminess, and
chewiness compared to APU. The APE-30 sample
had the highest level of hardness (6.24±0.13 N),
gumminess (4.48±0.16 N), and chewiness (4.44±0.10
N.mm). In the evaluation of springiness, no significant
difference was found between the enriched and
control samples. However, the springiness of APU-
30 and APE-30 samples were 1.08±0.13 (mm) and
1.07±0.12 (mm), which had a significant difference
compared to the other samples (p<0.05). The APU-
30 and APE-30 samples had the lowest cohesiveness
compared to other samples (p<0.05).
Table 5. Effect of different level of APU and APE powders on textural parameters of enriched cakes.
Sample Hardness (N) Gumminess (N) Chewiness (N.mm) Springiness (mm) Cohesiveness Adhesiveness (N.s)
Control 1.61±0.06 g 1.29±0.05 g 1.31±0.11 g 1.01±0.06 b 0.80±0.02 ab 0.39± 0.01 b
APU-10 2.82±0.13 f 2.14±0.10 f 2.17±0.10 f 1.00±0.00 b 0.83±0.01 a 0.39±0.01 b
APU-20 3.32±0.17 e 2.55±0.15 d 2.70±0.10 d 1.02±0.03 b 0.82±0.01 ab 0.40±0.01 b
APU-30 4.54±0.15 c 3.52±0.19 b 3.42±0.13 c 1.08±0.13 a 0.79±0.00 b 0.40±0.01 b
APE-10 4.26±0.17 d 2.39±0.21 e 2.52±0.24 e 0.99±0.02 b 0.79±0.01 b 0.46±0.18 a
APE-20 5.39±0.26 b 3.22±0.09 c 3.79±0.11 b 1.02±0.02 b 0.80±0.01 ab 0.40±0.01 b
APE-30 6.24±0.13 a 4.48±0.16 a 4.44±0.10 a 1.07±0.12 a 0.79±0.01 b 0.40±0.01 b
Values in the same column with the same letter are not significantly different (P<0.05)
3.7. Sensory characteristics
The sensory evaluation showed that the cake
prepared with APE-30 had the lowest score in terms
of appearance, texture, taste, and odor parameters
(Figure 3). The control sample obtained the highest
total score (Figure 4). However, the samples prepared
with APE-10 and APU-10 were not significantly
different from the control sample (p>0.05).
Figure 3. Sensory characteristics of seven samples prepared with
increasing level of APU and APE powders, scale from 1 (extreme
dislike) to 5 (extreme like).
Figure 4. Overall sensorial quality of seven samples prepared
with APU and APE powders.
4. DISCUSSION
4.1. Chemical analysis of powder
Noor Aziah et al. (25) reported 2.65 and 5.73 %
for soluble and insoluble fiber of wheat flour,
Production of enriched cakes by apple pulp and peel powder and evaluation of chemical, functional and textural properties
3.6. Textural properties
The results (Table 5) showed that hardness,
gumminess, and chewiness of the samples increased
significantly (p<0.05), which were higher in all
samples compared to the control. However, in equal
enrichment levels, the samples enriched with APE
had higher levels of hardness, gumminess, and
chewiness compared to APU. The APE-30 sample
had the highest level of hardness (6.24±0.13 N),
gumminess (4.48±0.16 N), and chewiness (4.44±0.10
N.mm). In the evaluation of springiness, no significant
difference was found between the enriched and
control samples. However, the springiness of APU-
30 and APE-30 samples were 1.08±0.13 (mm) and
1.07±0.12 (mm), which had a significant difference
compared to the other samples (p<0.05). The APU-
30 and APE-30 samples had the lowest cohesiveness
compared to other samples (p<0.05).
Table 5. Effect of different level of APU and APE powders on textural parameters of enriched cakes.
Sample Hardness (N) Gumminess (N) Chewiness (N.mm) Springiness (mm) Cohesiveness Adhesiveness (N.s)
Control 1.61±0.06 g 1.29±0.05 g 1.31±0.11 g 1.01±0.06 b 0.80±0.02 ab 0.39± 0.01 b
APU-10 2.82±0.13 f 2.14±0.10 f 2.17±0.10 f 1.00±0.00 b 0.83±0.01 a 0.39±0.01 b
APU-20 3.32±0.17 e 2.55±0.15 d 2.70±0.10 d 1.02±0.03 b 0.82±0.01 ab 0.40±0.01 b
APU-30 4.54±0.15 c 3.52±0.19 b 3.42±0.13 c 1.08±0.13 a 0.79±0.00 b 0.40±0.01 b
APE-10 4.26±0.17 d 2.39±0.21 e 2.52±0.24 e 0.99±0.02 b 0.79±0.01 b 0.46±0.18 a
APE-20 5.39±0.26 b 3.22±0.09 c 3.79±0.11 b 1.02±0.02 b 0.80±0.01 ab 0.40±0.01 b
APE-30 6.24±0.13 a 4.48±0.16 a 4.44±0.10 a 1.07±0.12 a 0.79±0.01 b 0.40±0.01 b
Values in the same column with the same letter are not significantly different (P<0.05)
3.7. Sensory characteristics
The sensory evaluation showed that the cake
prepared with APE-30 had the lowest score in terms
of appearance, texture, taste, and odor parameters
(Figure 3). The control sample obtained the highest
total score (Figure 4). However, the samples prepared
with APE-10 and APU-10 were not significantly
different from the control sample (p>0.05).
Figure 3. Sensory characteristics of seven samples prepared with
increasing level of APU and APE powders, scale from 1 (extreme
dislike) to 5 (extreme like).
Figure 4. Overall sensorial quality of seven samples prepared
with APU and APE powders.
4. DISCUSSION
4.1. Chemical analysis of powder
Noor Aziah et al. (25) reported 2.65 and 5.73 %
for soluble and insoluble fiber of wheat flour,
8Journal Vitae | https://revistas.udea.edu.co/index.php/vitae Volume 30 | Number 01 | Article 349519Ahmadreza Hosseini, Fahimeh Pazhouhandeh
respectively. In this research, the soluble and insoluble
fiber content of wheat flour were 2.32±0.00 %
and 5.89±0.05 %, respectively. The APU and APE
powders contained a higher percentage of soluble
and insoluble fiber than the wheat flour (p<0.05).
The measured insoluble fiber in APU and APE
powders were 33.71±0.05 % and 38.12±0.04 %,
respectively, indicating that APE powder contains
a higher percentage of insoluble dietary fiber than
APU powder. The APE powder, also contained
more soluble dietary fiber (p<0.05). In Skinner et al.
(26) research, the content of soluble and insoluble
dietary fiber in apple pomace powders were 13.5-
14.6 % and 33.8-60.0 %, respectively. This broad
difference in the amount of apple pomace can be
associated with the difference in apple cultivars
and dietary fiber extraction methods. In similar
research, the content of soluble and insoluble fiber
of apple pomace were 14.6 % and 36.5 % (21),
respectively, which was consistent with the findings
of this research as they also investigated peel and
pulp powder. Regarding the function of fibers in the
human diet, it can be stated that APU and APE as a
source of soluble and insoluble fibers can improve
the quality of food products.
4.2. Dietary fiber analysis of cakes
Kim et al. (27) used Opuntiaa humifusa powder in
enriched sponge cakes, which resulted in a linear
increase of fiber and a reduction of carbohydrates
and calories in the produced samples. Some
research has shown that the use of green banana
flour (28), green tea powder (29), mango peel and
pulp flours (25), and apple pomace (30, 31) also
increased the fiber levels in the baked product.
In this research, the samples enriched with APU
contained lower amount of fiber compared to the
corresponding samples that were enriched with
APE (p<0.05).
4.3. Functional and physiochemical properties
of APU and APE powders
In Moazezi et al. (7) research, the pH levels of wheat
flour and apple pomace were reported to be 6.1
and 4.6, respectively, which was consistent with this
research. Due to the higher acid content of APU and
APE compared to the wheat flour, in the preparation
of the enriched cakes, the pH of the dough is lower
than that of ordinary cakes. Masoodi et al. (32) linked
the pH reduction in the samples enriched with apple
pomace power to the high surface area and acidity
of the pomace.
Water absorption capacity (WAC) indicates the
potential of a food product to bond with water
(33, 34). All three samples displayed significant
differences compared to each other. Kumar and
Saini (35) reported WAC and oil absorption capacity
(OAC) of the wheat flour at 0.46 (g/g) and 1.19
(g/g), respectively. In this research, WAC and OAC
of wheat flour were 4.71±0.12 (g/g) and 1.14±0.09
(g/g). The OAC is the potential of flour proteins to
make physical bonds with fat/lipids through capillary
absorption. This property is of primary importance
since lipids, as preservatives of aroma and taste, can
increase mouth feel sense, especially in bread and
other cooked food products (36, 37). Higher OAC
in APU (2.19±0.07 g/g) and APE (2.32±0.03 g/g)
than the wheat flour (1.14±0.09 g/g), indicated the
higher bonding potential and preservative feature
of the pomace types in food products. High OAC
can be due to other components present in apple
peel and pulp which contribute to hydrophobicity
(38). In some research on apple pomace (21, 39), the
bulk density was reported at 520 (g/L) and 429.5
(g/L), respectively, which could be consistent with
the present study.
4.4. Physical characteristics
The volume of the cake is influenced by the mixture
of air in the dough and the capacity of the dough to
retain the gases released from the baking powder
system. The volume reduction in the enriched
cake with APU and APE may be linked with the
interference of the fibers with the process of gas
capturing within the cake matrix (40). In the case of
replacing flour with cellulose, several researchers
stated that it weakened the capacity of the gluten
matrix to contain the released gases inside the cake
(32, 21). The density of the cake is an indicator of
the dough capacity to contain air during mixing.
Low density suggests many air bubbles within the
cake texture. With the addition of APU to the cake
formula (Figure 2B), the density of the samples was
significantly increased from 0.29±0.04 (g/cm3) to
0.34±0.04 (g/cm3). Similarly, a decrease in volume
and an increase in density were reported with the
addition of fiber in the cake (21). Compared to
the control, a rise in the density of the enriched
samples can be due to the high level of fibers and
the subsequent change in the viscosity of the dough.
Proper density is associated with good aeration
of the batter in mixing. An excessively low batter
density also causes air to escape during the mixing
and baking (41, 42). Fibers, proteins, and sugars
can increase the batter density because they can
respectively. In this research, the soluble and insoluble
fiber content of wheat flour were 2.32±0.00 %
and 5.89±0.05 %, respectively. The APU and APE
powders contained a higher percentage of soluble
and insoluble fiber than the wheat flour (p<0.05).
The measured insoluble fiber in APU and APE
powders were 33.71±0.05 % and 38.12±0.04 %,
respectively, indicating that APE powder contains
a higher percentage of insoluble dietary fiber than
APU powder. The APE powder, also contained
more soluble dietary fiber (p<0.05). In Skinner et al.
(26) research, the content of soluble and insoluble
dietary fiber in apple pomace powders were 13.5-
14.6 % and 33.8-60.0 %, respectively. This broad
difference in the amount of apple pomace can be
associated with the difference in apple cultivars
and dietary fiber extraction methods. In similar
research, the content of soluble and insoluble fiber
of apple pomace were 14.6 % and 36.5 % (21),
respectively, which was consistent with the findings
of this research as they also investigated peel and
pulp powder. Regarding the function of fibers in the
human diet, it can be stated that APU and APE as a
source of soluble and insoluble fibers can improve
the quality of food products.
4.2. Dietary fiber analysis of cakes
Kim et al. (27) used Opuntiaa humifusa powder in
enriched sponge cakes, which resulted in a linear
increase of fiber and a reduction of carbohydrates
and calories in the produced samples. Some
research has shown that the use of green banana
flour (28), green tea powder (29), mango peel and
pulp flours (25), and apple pomace (30, 31) also
increased the fiber levels in the baked product.
In this research, the samples enriched with APU
contained lower amount of fiber compared to the
corresponding samples that were enriched with
APE (p<0.05).
4.3. Functional and physiochemical properties
of APU and APE powders
In Moazezi et al. (7) research, the pH levels of wheat
flour and apple pomace were reported to be 6.1
and 4.6, respectively, which was consistent with this
research. Due to the higher acid content of APU and
APE compared to the wheat flour, in the preparation
of the enriched cakes, the pH of the dough is lower
than that of ordinary cakes. Masoodi et al. (32) linked
the pH reduction in the samples enriched with apple
pomace power to the high surface area and acidity
of the pomace.
Water absorption capacity (WAC) indicates the
potential of a food product to bond with water
(33, 34). All three samples displayed significant
differences compared to each other. Kumar and
Saini (35) reported WAC and oil absorption capacity
(OAC) of the wheat flour at 0.46 (g/g) and 1.19
(g/g), respectively. In this research, WAC and OAC
of wheat flour were 4.71±0.12 (g/g) and 1.14±0.09
(g/g). The OAC is the potential of flour proteins to
make physical bonds with fat/lipids through capillary
absorption. This property is of primary importance
since lipids, as preservatives of aroma and taste, can
increase mouth feel sense, especially in bread and
other cooked food products (36, 37). Higher OAC
in APU (2.19±0.07 g/g) and APE (2.32±0.03 g/g)
than the wheat flour (1.14±0.09 g/g), indicated the
higher bonding potential and preservative feature
of the pomace types in food products. High OAC
can be due to other components present in apple
peel and pulp which contribute to hydrophobicity
(38). In some research on apple pomace (21, 39), the
bulk density was reported at 520 (g/L) and 429.5
(g/L), respectively, which could be consistent with
the present study.
4.4. Physical characteristics
The volume of the cake is influenced by the mixture
of air in the dough and the capacity of the dough to
retain the gases released from the baking powder
system. The volume reduction in the enriched
cake with APU and APE may be linked with the
interference of the fibers with the process of gas
capturing within the cake matrix (40). In the case of
replacing flour with cellulose, several researchers
stated that it weakened the capacity of the gluten
matrix to contain the released gases inside the cake
(32, 21). The density of the cake is an indicator of
the dough capacity to contain air during mixing.
Low density suggests many air bubbles within the
cake texture. With the addition of APU to the cake
formula (Figure 2B), the density of the samples was
significantly increased from 0.29±0.04 (g/cm3) to
0.34±0.04 (g/cm3). Similarly, a decrease in volume
and an increase in density were reported with the
addition of fiber in the cake (21). Compared to
the control, a rise in the density of the enriched
samples can be due to the high level of fibers and
the subsequent change in the viscosity of the dough.
Proper density is associated with good aeration
of the batter in mixing. An excessively low batter
density also causes air to escape during the mixing
and baking (41, 42). Fibers, proteins, and sugars
can increase the batter density because they can
9Journal Vitae | https://revistas.udea.edu.co/index.php/vitaeVolume 30 | Number 01 | Article 349519
Production of enriched cakes by apple pulp and peel powder and evaluation of chemical, functional and textural properties
disturb the aeration process (43, 44). Ayoubi et al.
(45) reported that adding Eleaagnus angustifolia
(senjed) powder increased the density of the cake. In
the present research, APU samples had more volume
than the APE samples, indicating a higher amount
of fiber in the peel powder. Noor Aziah et al. (25)
reported a specific volume reduction by replacing
wheat flour with mango fiber in cakes. Similar
findings concerning the volume reduction with the
addition of spinach and avocado (Persea americana)
puree (46, 47) in cakes and APE in muffins (48) were
consistent with the findings of this research.
4.5. Colorimetry
The color of the food products is a determining
factor in their quality and heavily influences their
marketability (49). Indeed, heat exposure generates
the cake color (50). As stated before, the L* index
indicates the product’s lightness. Based on the color
analysis results, the highest lightness level of the
cake core and crust were observed in the control
sample. Increasing the enrichment level from 10 to
30% led to a decrease in L* index in the cake core.
In the research of Kırbaş et al. (51), it was found that
the addition of apple pomace powder to the cake
led to a reduction of the lightness level. An increase
in the darkness and redness of the samples can
be associated with the presence of more sugars in
apple pomace compared to the wheat flour. Hence,
the Maillard reaction between amino acids and
sugars, as well as the caramelization of the samples,
could have occurred more intensively (52, 25, 50).
Jung et al. (52) found similar results by adding apple
pomace powder; in their research, the lightness of
the cookie samples was reduced, while the redness
level increased, which was explained by the darkness
of apple pomace compared to the wheat flour.
The APU-10 sample showed no significant difference
compared to the control sample (p>0.05). Salehi et
al. (53) stated that the cake enrichment with apple
powder led to a decrease in lightness, an increase in
redness, and had no significant effect on yellowness.
4.6. Textural properties
The texture of food products is one of the most
important factors that affect the acceptability of the
product. Texture characteristics are influenced by
cake volume, moisture level, and the interaction of
different cake components (16). The texture tests are
conducted either by instrumental analysis or sensory
evaluation; however, the instrumental method is
used frequently due to its accuracy.
Gumminess is calculated as hardness × cohesiveness
(27), and chewiness is calculated as springiness ×
gumminess, and it is defined as the needed energy
to disintegrate a food for swallowing (54). The results
(Table 5) showed that with increasing the enrichment
level, the hardness, gumminess, and chewiness also
increased (p<0.05), which were higher than the control.
Salehi et al. reported that adding apple powder to
the cakes significantly increased cake hardness (53).
According to Sudeh et al. (21), the dietary fiber of
fruits increased the hardness of the cake core. Ayubi
et al. (47) replaced wheat flour with senjed powder at
different levels, increasing the cake texture hardness.
Jung et al. (52) researched on cookie samples enriched
with apple pomace; high enrichment percentage
decreased their hardness, which was associated with
a low moisture level of the pomace.
Springiness is the measurement of elasticity level
by determining the recovery level between the first
and second compression cycle (27). In this research,
APU-30 and APE-30 had higher springiness than
other samples (P<0.05). Grigelmo-Miguel et al. (55)
found no significant difference in springiness by
adding peach fiber to muffin samples. In research
conducted by Kırbaş et al. (51), the fiber addition
reduced the cake springiness; however, the amount
and type of fiber did not affect springiness. Noor
Aziah et al. (25) attributed texture changes in sponge
cakes to interactions of fiber and gluten.
Cohesiveness determines the internal resistance of
food structure and indicates the product’s strength
to stick together (54). APU-30 and APE-30 had the
lowest cohesiveness in all samples (p<0.05). In the
research of Salehi et al. (54), the enrichment of
cake using carrot pomace showed a reduction in
cohesiveness. However, Rocha Parra (56) found that
increasing the apple pomace level led to reduce
cohesiveness in bread samples. Jun et al. (57) found
that applying apple peel flour reduced cohesiveness,
whereas hardness and gumminess parameters in
the samples significantly increased. Moreover, the
control and three-gram enriched sample had no
significant difference in adhesiveness.
Adhesiveness and cohesiveness parameters can
be influenced by storage conditions, temperature,
relative humidity, and packaging (58). In the present
research, no significant difference was found in
adhesiveness by adding pomace powders, except
in the APU-30 and APE-30 samples, with the highest
level of adhesiveness. This finding was consistent
with the research of Kırbaş et al. (51) since they found
no significant difference in the addition of apple
pomace in terms of adhesiveness.
Production of enriched cakes by apple pulp and peel powder and evaluation of chemical, functional and textural properties
disturb the aeration process (43, 44). Ayoubi et al.
(45) reported that adding Eleaagnus angustifolia
(senjed) powder increased the density of the cake. In
the present research, APU samples had more volume
than the APE samples, indicating a higher amount
of fiber in the peel powder. Noor Aziah et al. (25)
reported a specific volume reduction by replacing
wheat flour with mango fiber in cakes. Similar
findings concerning the volume reduction with the
addition of spinach and avocado (Persea americana)
puree (46, 47) in cakes and APE in muffins (48) were
consistent with the findings of this research.
4.5. Colorimetry
The color of the food products is a determining
factor in their quality and heavily influences their
marketability (49). Indeed, heat exposure generates
the cake color (50). As stated before, the L* index
indicates the product’s lightness. Based on the color
analysis results, the highest lightness level of the
cake core and crust were observed in the control
sample. Increasing the enrichment level from 10 to
30% led to a decrease in L* index in the cake core.
In the research of Kırbaş et al. (51), it was found that
the addition of apple pomace powder to the cake
led to a reduction of the lightness level. An increase
in the darkness and redness of the samples can
be associated with the presence of more sugars in
apple pomace compared to the wheat flour. Hence,
the Maillard reaction between amino acids and
sugars, as well as the caramelization of the samples,
could have occurred more intensively (52, 25, 50).
Jung et al. (52) found similar results by adding apple
pomace powder; in their research, the lightness of
the cookie samples was reduced, while the redness
level increased, which was explained by the darkness
of apple pomace compared to the wheat flour.
The APU-10 sample showed no significant difference
compared to the control sample (p>0.05). Salehi et
al. (53) stated that the cake enrichment with apple
powder led to a decrease in lightness, an increase in
redness, and had no significant effect on yellowness.
4.6. Textural properties
The texture of food products is one of the most
important factors that affect the acceptability of the
product. Texture characteristics are influenced by
cake volume, moisture level, and the interaction of
different cake components (16). The texture tests are
conducted either by instrumental analysis or sensory
evaluation; however, the instrumental method is
used frequently due to its accuracy.
Gumminess is calculated as hardness × cohesiveness
(27), and chewiness is calculated as springiness ×
gumminess, and it is defined as the needed energy
to disintegrate a food for swallowing (54). The results
(Table 5) showed that with increasing the enrichment
level, the hardness, gumminess, and chewiness also
increased (p<0.05), which were higher than the control.
Salehi et al. reported that adding apple powder to
the cakes significantly increased cake hardness (53).
According to Sudeh et al. (21), the dietary fiber of
fruits increased the hardness of the cake core. Ayubi
et al. (47) replaced wheat flour with senjed powder at
different levels, increasing the cake texture hardness.
Jung et al. (52) researched on cookie samples enriched
with apple pomace; high enrichment percentage
decreased their hardness, which was associated with
a low moisture level of the pomace.
Springiness is the measurement of elasticity level
by determining the recovery level between the first
and second compression cycle (27). In this research,
APU-30 and APE-30 had higher springiness than
other samples (P<0.05). Grigelmo-Miguel et al. (55)
found no significant difference in springiness by
adding peach fiber to muffin samples. In research
conducted by Kırbaş et al. (51), the fiber addition
reduced the cake springiness; however, the amount
and type of fiber did not affect springiness. Noor
Aziah et al. (25) attributed texture changes in sponge
cakes to interactions of fiber and gluten.
Cohesiveness determines the internal resistance of
food structure and indicates the product’s strength
to stick together (54). APU-30 and APE-30 had the
lowest cohesiveness in all samples (p<0.05). In the
research of Salehi et al. (54), the enrichment of
cake using carrot pomace showed a reduction in
cohesiveness. However, Rocha Parra (56) found that
increasing the apple pomace level led to reduce
cohesiveness in bread samples. Jun et al. (57) found
that applying apple peel flour reduced cohesiveness,
whereas hardness and gumminess parameters in
the samples significantly increased. Moreover, the
control and three-gram enriched sample had no
significant difference in adhesiveness.
Adhesiveness and cohesiveness parameters can
be influenced by storage conditions, temperature,
relative humidity, and packaging (58). In the present
research, no significant difference was found in
adhesiveness by adding pomace powders, except
in the APU-30 and APE-30 samples, with the highest
level of adhesiveness. This finding was consistent
with the research of Kırbaş et al. (51) since they found
no significant difference in the addition of apple
pomace in terms of adhesiveness.
10Journal Vitae | https://revistas.udea.edu.co/index.php/vitae Volume 30 | Number 01 | Article 349519Ahmadreza Hosseini, Fahimeh Pazhouhandeh
4.7. Sensory characteristics
Consumers usually pay special attention to the
sensory and visual characteristics of foods. Sensory
analysis is an effective way to assess the acceptability
of new food products. Our evaluation showed that
the control sample had the highest score (4.57), but
there was no significant difference between that and
APU-10 or APE-10. In contrast, the APE-30 had the
lowest score (3.72) due to the low score of APE-30
in appearance, texture, and taste parameters. The
texture is an important characteristic and indicates
the acceptability of the sensory quality of cakes.
Based on the results, the control sample had no
significant difference with APU-10 and APE-10 in
texture scores. The aroma of the cakes enriched
with APU-30, APE-30, and APE-20 had significantly
lower scores than other samples (p<0.05). However,
none of the panelists felt any aftertaste in sample
APE-20. No significant difference was observed in
the taste of the APU-10, APU-20, APE-10, and control
samples. The evaluation showed that replacing a
small amount of the wheat flour with APU or APE
(10%) could improve the nutritional properties
without significantly reducing the overall acceptance
of the cake (P>0.05). These findings were consistent
with the findings of some researchers (21, 17, 31) in
different bakery products.
4. CONCLUSION
The results of this research demonstrated that a
partial replacement of the wheat flour with apple
pomace significantly increased the dietary fibers,
especially insoluble fiber, compared to the control
sample. The cakes prepared with APU-10 and APE-
10 received the highest sensory scores after the
control sample. APU and APE had the potential to
use in the cake as a good source of dietary fibers.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to express our deep sense of gratitude
to all those who helped us in this process.
ETHICAL GUIDELINES
Ethics approval was not required for this research.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors declare no conflict of interest for this
work.
REFERENCE
[1] Reis SF, Rai DK, Abu-Ghannam N. Apple pomace as a potential
ingredient for the development of new functional foods.
International Journal of Food Science & Technology. 2014; 49(7):
1743-50. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/ijfs.12477
[2] Kolodziejczyk K, Markowski J, Kosmala M, Król B, Plocharski W.
Apple pomace as a potential source of nutraceutical products.
Polish Journal of Food and Nutrition Sciences. 2007; 57 (4[B]).
[3] Quirós-Sauceda AE, Palafox-Carlos H, Sáyago-Ayerdi SG, Ayala-
Zavala JF, Bello-Perez LA, Alvarez-Parrilla E, De La Rosa LA,
González-Córdova AF, González-Aguilar GA. Dietary fiber and
phenolic compounds as functional ingredients: interaction and
possible effect after ingestion. Food & function. 2014; 5(6): 1063-
72. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/C4FO00073K
[4] Figuerola F, Hurtado ML, Estévez AM, Chiffelle I, Asenjo F. Fiber
concentrates from apple pomace and citrus peel as potential
fiber sources for food enrichment. Food chemistry. 2005; 91(3):
395-401. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2004.04.036
[5] Vergara-Valencia N, Granados-Pérez E, Agama-Acevedo E, Tovar
J, Ruales J, Bello-Pérez LA. Fibre concentrate from mango fruit:
Characterization, associated antioxidant capacity and application
as a baker y produc t ingredient. LW T-Food Science and
Technology. 2007; 40(4): 722-9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
lwt.2006.02.028
[6] Moazezi S, Seyedin Ardebili SM, Eyvaz Zadeh O. Improver effect
of emulsifierSodium Stearoyl-2-Lactylate on the rheological
properties of dough containing apple pomace. Journal of food
science and technology (Iran). 2015; 12(47): 97-108.
[7] Park YK, Kim HS, Park HY, Han GJ, Kim MH. Retarded
retrogradation effect of Garaetteok with apple pomace dietary
fiber powder. Journal of the Korean Society of Food Culture. 2011;
26(4): 400-8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7318/KJFC.2011.26.4.400
[8] Schieber A, Hilt P, Streker P, Endreß HU, Rentschler C, Carle R. A
new process for the combined recovery of pectin and phenolic
compounds from apple pomace. Innovative Food Science &
Emerging Technologies. 2003; 4(1): 99-107. DOI: https://doi.
org/10.1016/S1466-8564(02)00087-5
[9] Bhushan S, Kalia K, Sharma M, Singh B, Ahuja PS. Processing
of apple pomace for bioactive molecules. Critical reviews
in biotechnology. 2008; 28(4): 285-96. DOI: ht tps://doi.
org/10.1080/07388550802368895
[10] Margetts BM, Martinez JA, Saba A, Holm L, Kearney M, Moles
A. Definitions of’ healthy eating: a pan-EU survey of consumer
attitudes to food, nutrition and health. European journal of clinical
nutrition. 1997; 51(2): S23.
[11] Dikeman CL, Murphy MR, Fahey Jr GC. Dietary fibers affect
viscosity of solutions and simulated human gastric and small
intestinal digesta. The Journal of nutrition. 2006; 136(4): 913-9.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/136.4.913
[12] Indriani S, Ab Karim MS, Nalinanon S, Karnjanapratum S.
Quality characteristics of protein-enriched brown rice flour
and cake affected by Bombay locust (Patanga succincta L.)
powder fortification. LWT. 2020 ;119: 108876. DOI: https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.lwt.2019.108876
[13] Singh JP, Kaur A, Singh N. Development of eggless gluten-free
rice muffins utilizing black carrot dietary fiber concentrate and
xanthan gum. Journal of Food Science and Technology. 2016;
53(2): 1269-78. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-015-2103-x
[14] O’shea N, Rößle C, Arendt E, Gallagher E. Modelling the effects
of orange pomace using response surface design for gluten-free
bread baking. Food chemistry. 2015; 166: 223-30. DOI: https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.05.157
4.7. Sensory characteristics
Consumers usually pay special attention to the
sensory and visual characteristics of foods. Sensory
analysis is an effective way to assess the acceptability
of new food products. Our evaluation showed that
the control sample had the highest score (4.57), but
there was no significant difference between that and
APU-10 or APE-10. In contrast, the APE-30 had the
lowest score (3.72) due to the low score of APE-30
in appearance, texture, and taste parameters. The
texture is an important characteristic and indicates
the acceptability of the sensory quality of cakes.
Based on the results, the control sample had no
significant difference with APU-10 and APE-10 in
texture scores. The aroma of the cakes enriched
with APU-30, APE-30, and APE-20 had significantly
lower scores than other samples (p<0.05). However,
none of the panelists felt any aftertaste in sample
APE-20. No significant difference was observed in
the taste of the APU-10, APU-20, APE-10, and control
samples. The evaluation showed that replacing a
small amount of the wheat flour with APU or APE
(10%) could improve the nutritional properties
without significantly reducing the overall acceptance
of the cake (P>0.05). These findings were consistent
with the findings of some researchers (21, 17, 31) in
different bakery products.
4. CONCLUSION
The results of this research demonstrated that a
partial replacement of the wheat flour with apple
pomace significantly increased the dietary fibers,
especially insoluble fiber, compared to the control
sample. The cakes prepared with APU-10 and APE-
10 received the highest sensory scores after the
control sample. APU and APE had the potential to
use in the cake as a good source of dietary fibers.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to express our deep sense of gratitude
to all those who helped us in this process.
ETHICAL GUIDELINES
Ethics approval was not required for this research.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors declare no conflict of interest for this
work.
REFERENCE
[1] Reis SF, Rai DK, Abu-Ghannam N. Apple pomace as a potential
ingredient for the development of new functional foods.
International Journal of Food Science & Technology. 2014; 49(7):
1743-50. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/ijfs.12477
[2] Kolodziejczyk K, Markowski J, Kosmala M, Król B, Plocharski W.
Apple pomace as a potential source of nutraceutical products.
Polish Journal of Food and Nutrition Sciences. 2007; 57 (4[B]).
[3] Quirós-Sauceda AE, Palafox-Carlos H, Sáyago-Ayerdi SG, Ayala-
Zavala JF, Bello-Perez LA, Alvarez-Parrilla E, De La Rosa LA,
González-Córdova AF, González-Aguilar GA. Dietary fiber and
phenolic compounds as functional ingredients: interaction and
possible effect after ingestion. Food & function. 2014; 5(6): 1063-
72. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/C4FO00073K
[4] Figuerola F, Hurtado ML, Estévez AM, Chiffelle I, Asenjo F. Fiber
concentrates from apple pomace and citrus peel as potential
fiber sources for food enrichment. Food chemistry. 2005; 91(3):
395-401. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2004.04.036
[5] Vergara-Valencia N, Granados-Pérez E, Agama-Acevedo E, Tovar
J, Ruales J, Bello-Pérez LA. Fibre concentrate from mango fruit:
Characterization, associated antioxidant capacity and application
as a baker y produc t ingredient. LW T-Food Science and
Technology. 2007; 40(4): 722-9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
lwt.2006.02.028
[6] Moazezi S, Seyedin Ardebili SM, Eyvaz Zadeh O. Improver effect
of emulsifierSodium Stearoyl-2-Lactylate on the rheological
properties of dough containing apple pomace. Journal of food
science and technology (Iran). 2015; 12(47): 97-108.
[7] Park YK, Kim HS, Park HY, Han GJ, Kim MH. Retarded
retrogradation effect of Garaetteok with apple pomace dietary
fiber powder. Journal of the Korean Society of Food Culture. 2011;
26(4): 400-8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7318/KJFC.2011.26.4.400
[8] Schieber A, Hilt P, Streker P, Endreß HU, Rentschler C, Carle R. A
new process for the combined recovery of pectin and phenolic
compounds from apple pomace. Innovative Food Science &
Emerging Technologies. 2003; 4(1): 99-107. DOI: https://doi.
org/10.1016/S1466-8564(02)00087-5
[9] Bhushan S, Kalia K, Sharma M, Singh B, Ahuja PS. Processing
of apple pomace for bioactive molecules. Critical reviews
in biotechnology. 2008; 28(4): 285-96. DOI: ht tps://doi.
org/10.1080/07388550802368895
[10] Margetts BM, Martinez JA, Saba A, Holm L, Kearney M, Moles
A. Definitions of’ healthy eating: a pan-EU survey of consumer
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[12] Indriani S, Ab Karim MS, Nalinanon S, Karnjanapratum S.
Quality characteristics of protein-enriched brown rice flour
and cake affected by Bombay locust (Patanga succincta L.)
powder fortification. LWT. 2020 ;119: 108876. DOI: https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.lwt.2019.108876
[13] Singh JP, Kaur A, Singh N. Development of eggless gluten-free
rice muffins utilizing black carrot dietary fiber concentrate and
xanthan gum. Journal of Food Science and Technology. 2016;
53(2): 1269-78. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-015-2103-x
[14] O’shea N, Rößle C, Arendt E, Gallagher E. Modelling the effects
of orange pomace using response surface design for gluten-free
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11Journal Vitae | https://revistas.udea.edu.co/index.php/vitaeVolume 30 | Number 01 | Article 349519
Production of enriched cakes by apple pulp and peel powder and evaluation of chemical, functional and textural properties
[15] Majzoobi M, Poor ZV, Jamalian J, Farahnaky A. Improvement of
the quality of gluten-free sponge cake using different levels and
particle sizes of carrot pomace powder. International Journal of
Food Science & Technology. 2016; 51(6): 1369-77. DOI: https://
doi.org/10.1111/ijfs.13104
[16] Alongi M, Melchior S, Anese M. Reducing the glycemic index
of short dough biscuits by using apple pomace as a functional
ingredient, LWT - Food Science and Technology. 2018; 100: 300-
305. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2018.10.068.
[17] International Standard Organization. Method ISO 6540:1980,
Maize - determination of moisture content (on milled grains and
on whole grains); method ISO 5984:2002, Animal feeding stuffs
- determination of crude ash. ISO, Vernier, Geneva, Switzerland.
[18] ICC International Association for Cereal Science and Technology.
ICC standard methods, 2nd supplement. Standard method 136.
Vienna, Austria: International Association for Cereal Science
and Technology. 2016. https://www.icc.or.at/publications/icc-
standards/standards-overview/136-standard-method
[19] Mæhre HK, Dalheim L, Edvinsen GK, Elvevoll EO, Jensen IJ.
Protein determination method matters. Foods. 2018; 7(1): 5. DOI:
https://doi.org/10.3390/foods7010005
[20] AACC. )2000(. Approved methods of analysis, 10th ed. American
Association of Cereal Chemists. St. Paul, Minnesota, USA. www.
aaccnet.org
[21] Sudha ML, Baskaran V, Leelavathi K. Apple pomace as a source
of dietary fiber and polyphenols and its effect on the rheological
characteristics and cake making. Food chemistry. 2007; 104(2):
686-92. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2006.12.016
[22] Ktenioudaki A, O’Shea N, Gallagher E. Rheological properties
of wheat dough supplemented with functional by-products
of food processing: Brewer’s spent grain and apple pomace.
Journal of Food engineering. 2013; 116(2): 362-8. DOI: https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2012.12.005
[23] Omid M, Khojastehnazhand M, Tabatabaeefar A. Estimating
volume and mass of citrus fruits by image processing technique.
Journal of food Engineering. 2010; 100(2): 315-21. DOI: https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2010.04.015
[24] Nakov G, Brandolini A, Hidalgo A, Ivanova N, Stamatovska V,
Dimov I. Effect of grape pomace powder addition on chemical,
nutritional and technological properties of cakes. LWT. 2020;
134:109950. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2020.109950
[25] Noor Aziah A, Lee Min W, and Bhat R. Nutritional and sensory
quality evaluation of sponge cake prepared by incorporation
of high dietary fiber containing mango (Mangifera indica var.
Chokanan) pulp and peel flours. International journal of food
sciences and nutrition. 2011; 62(6): 559-567. DOI: https://doi.org
/10.3109/09637486.2011.562883
[26] Skinner RC, Gigliotti JC, Ku KM, Tou JC. A comprehensive
analysis of the composition, health benefits, and safety of apple
pomace. Nutrition Reviews. 2018; 76(12): 893-909. DOI: https://
doi.org/10.1093/nutrit/nuy033
[27] Kim JH, Lee HJ, Lee HS, Lim EJ, Imm JY, Suh HJ. Physical and
sensory characteristics of fibre-enriched sponge cakes made
with Opuntia humifusa. LWT. 2012; 47(2): 478-84. DOI: https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2012.02.011
[28] Segundo C, Román L, Gómez M, Martínez MM. Mechanically
fractionated flour isolated from green bananas (M. cavendishii var.
nanica) as a tool to increase the dietary fiber and phytochemical
bioactivity of layer and sponge cakes. Food Chemistry. 2017; 219:
240-8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.09.143
[29] Lu TM, Lee CC, Mau JL, Lin SD. Quality and antioxidant property
of green tea sponge cake. Food chemistry. 2010; 119(3): 1090-5.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.08.015
[30] Younas MB, Rakha A, Sohail M, Rashid S, Ishtiaq H. Physicochemical
and sensory assessment of apple pomace enriched muffins.
Pakistan Journal of Food Sciences. 2015; 25(4): 224-34.
[31] Mir SA, Bosco SJ, Shah MA, Santhalakshmy S, Mir MM. Effect
of apple pomace on quality characteristics of brown rice based
cracker. Journal of the Saudi Society of Agricultural Sciences. 2017;
16(1): 25-32. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jssas.2015.01.001
[32] Masoodi FA, Sharma B, Chauhan GS. Use of apple pomace as a
source of dietary fiber in cakes. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition.
2002; 57(2): 121-8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015264032164
[33] Singh J, Kaur L, McCarthy OJ. Factors influencing the physico-
chemical, morphological, thermal and rheological properties
of some chemically modified starches for food applications A
review. Food hydrocolloids. 2007; 21(1): 1-22. DOI: https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2006.02.006
[34] Singh U. Functional properties of grain legume flours. Journal of
food science and technology (Mysore). 2001; 38(3): 191-9.
[35] Kumar S, Saini CS. Study of various characteristics of composite
flour prepared from the blend of wheat flour and gorgon
nut flour. International Journal of Agriculture, Environment
and Biotechnology. 2016; 9(4): 679-89. DOI: https://doi.
org/10.5958/2230-732X.2016.00089.9
[36] Kinsella JE, Melachouris N. Functional properties of proteins in
foods: a survey. Critical Reviews in Food Science & Nutrition. 1976;
7(3): 219-80. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10408397609527208
[37] Kinsella JE. Relationships Between Structure and Functional.
Fo o d p r otei ns [I nte r net]. 1982: 51. D O I: ht t p s: //d oi.
org/10.1002/9781118860588.ch5
[38] Wang X, Kristo E, LaPointe G. The effect of apple pomace on the
texture, rheology and microstructure of set type yogurt. Food
Hydrocolloids. 2019; 91: 83-91. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
foodhyd.2019.01.004
[39] Bchir B, Rabetafika HN, Paquot M, Blecker C. Effect of pear,
apple and date fibers from cooked fruit by-products on
dough performance and bread quality. Food and Bioprocess
Technology. 2014; 7(4): 1114-27. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/
s11947-013-1148-y
[40] Lee JH. Physicochemical and sensory characteristics of sponge
cakes with Rubus coreanus powder. Preventive Nutrition and
Food Science. 2015; 20(3): 204. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3746/
pnf.2015.20.3.204
[41] Gómez M, Ronda F, Caballero PA, Blanco CA, Rosell CM.
Functionality of different hydrocolloids on the quality and shelf-
life of yellow layer cakes. Food hydrocolloids. 2007; 21(2): 167-73.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2006.03.012
[42] Turabi E, Sumnu G, Sahin S. Rheological properties and quality
of rice cakes formulated with different gums and an emulsifier
blend. Food hydrocolloids. 2008; 22(2): 305-12. DOI: https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2006.11.016
[43] Wilderjans E, Pareyt B, Goesaert H, Brijs K, Delcour JA. The role
of gluten in a pound cake system: A model approach based on
gluten–starch blends. Food Chemistry. 2008; 110(4): 909-15. DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.02.079
[44] Gomes LD, Santiago RD, Carvalho AV, Carvalho RN, Oliveira
IG, Bassinello PZ. Application of extruded broken bean flour
for formulation of gluten-free cake blends. Food Science and
Technology. 2015; 35: 307-13. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-
457x.6521
[45] Ayoubi A. The effect of wheat flour replacement with Eleaagnus
angustifolia powder on quality characteristics of cupcake. Iranian
Journal of Nutrition Sciences & Food Technology. 2018; 13(2):
79-88.
Production of enriched cakes by apple pulp and peel powder and evaluation of chemical, functional and textural properties
[15] Majzoobi M, Poor ZV, Jamalian J, Farahnaky A. Improvement of
the quality of gluten-free sponge cake using different levels and
particle sizes of carrot pomace powder. International Journal of
Food Science & Technology. 2016; 51(6): 1369-77. DOI: https://
doi.org/10.1111/ijfs.13104
[16] Alongi M, Melchior S, Anese M. Reducing the glycemic index
of short dough biscuits by using apple pomace as a functional
ingredient, LWT - Food Science and Technology. 2018; 100: 300-
305. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2018.10.068.
[17] International Standard Organization. Method ISO 6540:1980,
Maize - determination of moisture content (on milled grains and
on whole grains); method ISO 5984:2002, Animal feeding stuffs
- determination of crude ash. ISO, Vernier, Geneva, Switzerland.
[18] ICC International Association for Cereal Science and Technology.
ICC standard methods, 2nd supplement. Standard method 136.
Vienna, Austria: International Association for Cereal Science
and Technology. 2016. https://www.icc.or.at/publications/icc-
standards/standards-overview/136-standard-method
[19] Mæhre HK, Dalheim L, Edvinsen GK, Elvevoll EO, Jensen IJ.
Protein determination method matters. Foods. 2018; 7(1): 5. DOI:
https://doi.org/10.3390/foods7010005
[20] AACC. )2000(. Approved methods of analysis, 10th ed. American
Association of Cereal Chemists. St. Paul, Minnesota, USA. www.
aaccnet.org
[21] Sudha ML, Baskaran V, Leelavathi K. Apple pomace as a source
of dietary fiber and polyphenols and its effect on the rheological
characteristics and cake making. Food chemistry. 2007; 104(2):
686-92. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2006.12.016
[22] Ktenioudaki A, O’Shea N, Gallagher E. Rheological properties
of wheat dough supplemented with functional by-products
of food processing: Brewer’s spent grain and apple pomace.
Journal of Food engineering. 2013; 116(2): 362-8. DOI: https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2012.12.005
[23] Omid M, Khojastehnazhand M, Tabatabaeefar A. Estimating
volume and mass of citrus fruits by image processing technique.
Journal of food Engineering. 2010; 100(2): 315-21. DOI: https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2010.04.015
[24] Nakov G, Brandolini A, Hidalgo A, Ivanova N, Stamatovska V,
Dimov I. Effect of grape pomace powder addition on chemical,
nutritional and technological properties of cakes. LWT. 2020;
134:109950. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2020.109950
[25] Noor Aziah A, Lee Min W, and Bhat R. Nutritional and sensory
quality evaluation of sponge cake prepared by incorporation
of high dietary fiber containing mango (Mangifera indica var.
Chokanan) pulp and peel flours. International journal of food
sciences and nutrition. 2011; 62(6): 559-567. DOI: https://doi.org
/10.3109/09637486.2011.562883
[26] Skinner RC, Gigliotti JC, Ku KM, Tou JC. A comprehensive
analysis of the composition, health benefits, and safety of apple
pomace. Nutrition Reviews. 2018; 76(12): 893-909. DOI: https://
doi.org/10.1093/nutrit/nuy033
[27] Kim JH, Lee HJ, Lee HS, Lim EJ, Imm JY, Suh HJ. Physical and
sensory characteristics of fibre-enriched sponge cakes made
with Opuntia humifusa. LWT. 2012; 47(2): 478-84. DOI: https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2012.02.011
[28] Segundo C, Román L, Gómez M, Martínez MM. Mechanically
fractionated flour isolated from green bananas (M. cavendishii var.
nanica) as a tool to increase the dietary fiber and phytochemical
bioactivity of layer and sponge cakes. Food Chemistry. 2017; 219:
240-8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.09.143
[29] Lu TM, Lee CC, Mau JL, Lin SD. Quality and antioxidant property
of green tea sponge cake. Food chemistry. 2010; 119(3): 1090-5.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.08.015
[30] Younas MB, Rakha A, Sohail M, Rashid S, Ishtiaq H. Physicochemical
and sensory assessment of apple pomace enriched muffins.
Pakistan Journal of Food Sciences. 2015; 25(4): 224-34.
[31] Mir SA, Bosco SJ, Shah MA, Santhalakshmy S, Mir MM. Effect
of apple pomace on quality characteristics of brown rice based
cracker. Journal of the Saudi Society of Agricultural Sciences. 2017;
16(1): 25-32. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jssas.2015.01.001
[32] Masoodi FA, Sharma B, Chauhan GS. Use of apple pomace as a
source of dietary fiber in cakes. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition.
2002; 57(2): 121-8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015264032164
[33] Singh J, Kaur L, McCarthy OJ. Factors influencing the physico-
chemical, morphological, thermal and rheological properties
of some chemically modified starches for food applications A
review. Food hydrocolloids. 2007; 21(1): 1-22. DOI: https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2006.02.006
[34] Singh U. Functional properties of grain legume flours. Journal of
food science and technology (Mysore). 2001; 38(3): 191-9.
[35] Kumar S, Saini CS. Study of various characteristics of composite
flour prepared from the blend of wheat flour and gorgon
nut flour. International Journal of Agriculture, Environment
and Biotechnology. 2016; 9(4): 679-89. DOI: https://doi.
org/10.5958/2230-732X.2016.00089.9
[36] Kinsella JE, Melachouris N. Functional properties of proteins in
foods: a survey. Critical Reviews in Food Science & Nutrition. 1976;
7(3): 219-80. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10408397609527208
[37] Kinsella JE. Relationships Between Structure and Functional.
Fo o d p r otei ns [I nte r net]. 1982: 51. D O I: ht t p s: //d oi.
org/10.1002/9781118860588.ch5
[38] Wang X, Kristo E, LaPointe G. The effect of apple pomace on the
texture, rheology and microstructure of set type yogurt. Food
Hydrocolloids. 2019; 91: 83-91. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
foodhyd.2019.01.004
[39] Bchir B, Rabetafika HN, Paquot M, Blecker C. Effect of pear,
apple and date fibers from cooked fruit by-products on
dough performance and bread quality. Food and Bioprocess
Technology. 2014; 7(4): 1114-27. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/
s11947-013-1148-y
[40] Lee JH. Physicochemical and sensory characteristics of sponge
cakes with Rubus coreanus powder. Preventive Nutrition and
Food Science. 2015; 20(3): 204. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3746/
pnf.2015.20.3.204
[41] Gómez M, Ronda F, Caballero PA, Blanco CA, Rosell CM.
Functionality of different hydrocolloids on the quality and shelf-
life of yellow layer cakes. Food hydrocolloids. 2007; 21(2): 167-73.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2006.03.012
[42] Turabi E, Sumnu G, Sahin S. Rheological properties and quality
of rice cakes formulated with different gums and an emulsifier
blend. Food hydrocolloids. 2008; 22(2): 305-12. DOI: https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2006.11.016
[43] Wilderjans E, Pareyt B, Goesaert H, Brijs K, Delcour JA. The role
of gluten in a pound cake system: A model approach based on
gluten–starch blends. Food Chemistry. 2008; 110(4): 909-15. DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.02.079
[44] Gomes LD, Santiago RD, Carvalho AV, Carvalho RN, Oliveira
IG, Bassinello PZ. Application of extruded broken bean flour
for formulation of gluten-free cake blends. Food Science and
Technology. 2015; 35: 307-13. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-
457x.6521
[45] Ayoubi A. The effect of wheat flour replacement with Eleaagnus
angustifolia powder on quality characteristics of cupcake. Iranian
Journal of Nutrition Sciences & Food Technology. 2018; 13(2):
79-88.
12Journal Vitae | https://revistas.udea.edu.co/index.php/vitae Volume 30 | Number 01 | Article 349519Ahmadreza Hosseini, Fahimeh Pazhouhandeh
[46] Mohtarami F, Gholipour D, Ashrafi Yorghanlou R. The feasibility
of producing enriched and low-calorie sponge cakes with spinach
puree. Journal of Food Science and Technology. 2019; 84(15):
375-84.
[47] Marina AM, Nurhanan AR, Rosli WW, Ain ON. Physical properties
and microstructure of butter cake added with Persea americana
puree. Sains Malaysiana. 2016; 45(7): 1105-11.
[48] Rupasinghe HV, Wang L, Huber GM, Pitts NL. Effect of baking on
dietary fibre and phenolics of muffins incorporated with apple
skin powder. Food Chemistry. 2008; 107(3): 1217-24. DOI: https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.09.057
[49] Lavelli V, Vantaggi C. Rate of antioxidant degradation and color
variations in dehydrated apples as related to water activity.
Journal of agricultural and food chemistry. 2009; 57(11): 4733-8.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/jf900176v
[50] Gómez M, Oliete B, Rosell CM, Pando V, Fernández E. Studies on
cake quality made of wheat–chickpea flour blends. LWT. 2008;
41(9): 1701-9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2007.11.024
[51] Kırbaş Z, Kumcuoglu S, Tavman S. Effects of apple, orange and
carrot pomace powders on gluten-free batter rheology and cake
properties. Journal of Food Science and Technology. 2019; 56(2):
914-26. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-018-03554-z
[52] Jung J, Cavender G, Zhao Y. Impingement drying for preparing
dried apple pomace flour and its fortification in bakery and meat
products. Journal of Food Science and Technology. 2015; 52(9):
5568-78. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-014-1680-4
[53] Salehi F, Kashaninejad M, Alipour N. Evaluation of physicochemical,
sensory and textural properties of rich sponge cake with dried
apples powder. Innovative Food Technologies. 2016b; 3(3): 39-47.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.22104/JIFT.2016.289
[54] Salehi F, Kashaninejad M, Akbari E, Sobhani SM, Asadi F. Potential
of sponge cake making using infrared–hot air dried carrot. Journal
of texture studies. 2016a; 47(1): 34-9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/
jtxs.12165
[55] Grigelmo-Miguel N, Carreras-Boladeras E, Martin-Belloso O.
Influence of the addition of peach dietary fiber in composition,
physical properties and acceptability of reduced-fat muffins.
Food science and technology international. 2001; 7(5): 425-31.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1106/FLLH-K91M-1G34-Y0EL
[56] Rocha Parra AF, Ribotta PD, Ferrero C. Apple pomace in gluten‐
free formulations: effect on rheology and product quality.
International Journal of Food Science & Technology. 2015; 50(3):
682-90. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/ijfs.12662
[57] Jun Y, Bae IY, Lee S, Lee HG. Utilisation of preharvest dropped
apple peels as a flour substitute for a lower glycaemic index
and higher fibre cake. International journal of food sciences and
nutrition. 2014; 65(1): 62-8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3109/09637
486.2013.830083
[58] Cauvain SP. Improving the control of staling in frozen bakery
products. Trends in Food Science & Technology. 1998; 9(2): 56-
61. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0924-2244(98)00003-X
[46] Mohtarami F, Gholipour D, Ashrafi Yorghanlou R. The feasibility
of producing enriched and low-calorie sponge cakes with spinach
puree. Journal of Food Science and Technology. 2019; 84(15):
375-84.
[47] Marina AM, Nurhanan AR, Rosli WW, Ain ON. Physical properties
and microstructure of butter cake added with Persea americana
puree. Sains Malaysiana. 2016; 45(7): 1105-11.
[48] Rupasinghe HV, Wang L, Huber GM, Pitts NL. Effect of baking on
dietary fibre and phenolics of muffins incorporated with apple
skin powder. Food Chemistry. 2008; 107(3): 1217-24. DOI: https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.09.057
[49] Lavelli V, Vantaggi C. Rate of antioxidant degradation and color
variations in dehydrated apples as related to water activity.
Journal of agricultural and food chemistry. 2009; 57(11): 4733-8.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/jf900176v
[50] Gómez M, Oliete B, Rosell CM, Pando V, Fernández E. Studies on
cake quality made of wheat–chickpea flour blends. LWT. 2008;
41(9): 1701-9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2007.11.024
[51] Kırbaş Z, Kumcuoglu S, Tavman S. Effects of apple, orange and
carrot pomace powders on gluten-free batter rheology and cake
properties. Journal of Food Science and Technology. 2019; 56(2):
914-26. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-018-03554-z
[52] Jung J, Cavender G, Zhao Y. Impingement drying for preparing
dried apple pomace flour and its fortification in bakery and meat
products. Journal of Food Science and Technology. 2015; 52(9):
5568-78. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-014-1680-4
[53] Salehi F, Kashaninejad M, Alipour N. Evaluation of physicochemical,
sensory and textural properties of rich sponge cake with dried
apples powder. Innovative Food Technologies. 2016b; 3(3): 39-47.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.22104/JIFT.2016.289
[54] Salehi F, Kashaninejad M, Akbari E, Sobhani SM, Asadi F. Potential
of sponge cake making using infrared–hot air dried carrot. Journal
of texture studies. 2016a; 47(1): 34-9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/
jtxs.12165
[55] Grigelmo-Miguel N, Carreras-Boladeras E, Martin-Belloso O.
Influence of the addition of peach dietary fiber in composition,
physical properties and acceptability of reduced-fat muffins.
Food science and technology international. 2001; 7(5): 425-31.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1106/FLLH-K91M-1G34-Y0EL
[56] Rocha Parra AF, Ribotta PD, Ferrero C. Apple pomace in gluten‐
free formulations: effect on rheology and product quality.
International Journal of Food Science & Technology. 2015; 50(3):
682-90. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/ijfs.12662
[57] Jun Y, Bae IY, Lee S, Lee HG. Utilisation of preharvest dropped
apple peels as a flour substitute for a lower glycaemic index
and higher fibre cake. International journal of food sciences and
nutrition. 2014; 65(1): 62-8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3109/09637
486.2013.830083
[58] Cauvain SP. Improving the control of staling in frozen bakery
products. Trends in Food Science & Technology. 1998; 9(2): 56-
61. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0924-2244(98)00003-X